The non-literary Latin letters. A study of their syntax and pragmatics

This dissertation studies the language of Latin letters that were written in Egypt and Vindolanda (in northern Britain) during the period 1st century BC 3rd century AD on papyri, ostraca, and wooden tablets. The majority of the texts is, in one way or another, connected with the Roman army. The focus of the study is on syntax and pragmatics. Besides traditional philological methods, modern syntactic theory is used as well, especially in the pragmatic analysis. The study begins with a critical survey of certain concepts that are current in the research on the Latin language, most importantly the concept of vulgar Latin , which, it is argued, seems to be used as an abstract noun for variation and change in Latin . Further, it is necessary to treat even the non-literary material primarily as written texts and not as straightforward reflections of spoken language. An examination of letter phraseology shows that there is considerable variation between the two major geographical areas of provenance. Latin letter writing in Egypt was influenced by Greek. The study highlights the importance of seeing the letters as a text type, with recurring phraseological elements appearing in the body text as well. It is argued that recognising these elements is essential for the correct analysis of the syntax. Three areas of syntax are discussed in detail: sentence connection (mainly parataxis), syntactically incoherent structures and word order (the order of the object and the verb). For certain types of sentence connection we may plausibly posit an origin in spoken Latin, but for many other linguistic phenomena attested in this material the issue of spoken Latin is anything but simple. Concerning the study of historical syntax, the letters offer information about the changing status of the accusative case. Incoherent structures may reflect contaminations in spoken language but usually the reason for them is the inability of the writer to put his thoughts into writing, especially when there is something more complicated to be expressed. Many incoherent expressions reflect the need to start the predication with a thematic constituent. Latin word order is seen as resulting from an interaction of syntactic and pragmatic factors. The preference for an order where the topic is placed sentence-initially can be seen in word order more generally as well. Furthermore, there appears a difference between Egypt and Vindolanda. The letters from Vindolanda show the order O(bject) V(erb) clearly more often than the letters from Egypt. Interestingly, this difference correlates with another, namely the use of the anaphoric pronoun is. This is an interesting observation in view of the fact that both of these are traditional Latin features, as opposed to those that foreshadow the Romance development (VO order and use of the anaphoric ille). However, it is difficult to say whether this is an indication of social or regional variation.

Vyra enie obob čёnno-ličnogo značenija v russkom jazyke

Expressing generalized-personal meaning in Russian Based on data from Russian, this doctoral dissertation examines generalized-personal meaning that is, generic expressions referring to all human beings, people in general, each or any person (e.g. S vozrastom načinae cenit prostye ve či With age you start to appreciate simple things ). The study shares its basic theoretical orientation with functional approaches going from meaning to form . The objective of the thesis is to determine and describe the various linguistic means which can be used by the speaker to express generalized-personal meaning. The main material of the study consists of 2,000 examples collected from modern Russian literature, newspapers, and magazines. The linguistic means of expressing generalized-personal meaning are divided into three main classes. Morphological and lexico-grammatical means (22% of the material) include the use of personal pronouns and personal verbal endings. In Russian, all personal forms except the 3rd person singular can be used in a generalized-personal meaning. Lexical means (14% of the material) involve, above all, pronouns like vse all , ka dyj everyone , nikto no one , as well as the nouns čelovek man and ljudi people . In emotional speech, generalized-personal meaning can also be conveyed lexically by using utterances like da e idiot znaet even an idiot knows . In rhetorical questions the pronoun kto who can appear in this meaning (cf. Kto ne ljubit moro enoe?! Who doesn t like ice cream?! ). The third main class, syntactic means (64% of the material), consists of constructions in which the generic person is not expressed at the surface level. This class mainly includes two-component structures in which the infinitive relates to a modal predicative adverb (e.g. mo no can, be allowed to , nado must ), modal verb (e.g. stoit be worth(while) , sleduet must, be obliged to ), or predicative adverb ending in -о (e.g. trudno it is hard to , neprilično is not appropriate ). Other syntactic means are: one-component infinitive structures, so-called embedded structures, structures with a processual noun, passive constructions, and gerund constructions. The different forms of expression available in Russian are not interchangeable in all contexts. Even if a given context tolerates the substitution of one construction for another, the two expressions are never entirely synonymous. In addition to determining the range of forms which can express generalized-personal meaning, the study aims to compare these forms and to specify the conditions and possible restrictions (contextual, semantic, syntactic, stylistic, etc.) associated with the use of each construction. In Russian linguistics, the generalized-personal meaning has not been extensively studied from a functional perspective. The advantage of a meaning-based functional approach is that it gives a comprehensive picture of the diversity and distribution of the phenomenon.

Laadukasta yliopisto-opetusta kehittämässä : Laadukkaan yliopisto-opetuksen kehittäminen ja yliopistopedagogisen koulutuksen yhteys opetuksen kehittämiseen Helsingin yliopiston opettajilla

Objectives. The purpose of this study was to examine the development of high-quality university teaching among the teachers of the University of Helsinki. Furthermore, the relation of university pedagogical training to development of teaching was analyzed. This study introduces a new perspective to the research of quality of university teaching by considering quality from the teaching development perspective. The individual level examination was done from teacher's perspective. The development of high-quality university teaching was approached through three factors of teaching development defined by Biggs (2003). These factors are 1) the level of thinking about teaching on which the teaching development is based on (can also be called the quality model), 2) the methods for and 3) the impediments to teaching development. The research of Trigwell and Prosser (1996), Lindblom-Ylänne, Nevgi and Postareff (2004) and Postareff, Lindblom-Ylänne and Nevgi (2007) and the ideas of Ramsden (1992) have been central sources to this study. Methods. This study was a survey study. The data was collected with an electronic questionnaire in the spring of 2007. The sample consisted of 655 person of which some had and some had not university pedagogical training. Total of 251 answered the study. The data was mainly analyzed with SPSS statistical programme. Item analysis, principal component analysis, nonparametric Kruskal-Wallis and Mann-Whitney tests, correlation and crosstabulation were the methods used to analyze the data. Results and conclusions. According to the results it seems that the teachers of the University of Helsinki have good basis for developing high-quality university teaching. The 3rd level of thinking about teaching, which emphasizes student-centred features, could be identified on majority of the teachers. The use of teaching development methods was comprehensive. Most frequently used methods were related to the enhancement of content knowledge. In general the impediments to teaching development were not considered to be very significant. The most significant impediments were the factors related to lack of appreciation of teaching and factors related to lack of time meant for the planning and developing of teaching. Differences were found according to sex, teaching experience, degree, position and faculty. This study also showed that university pedagogical training seems to have a positive relation to the development of high-quality university teaching among the teachers of University of Helsinki. According to the results when the amount of teachers university pedagogical training increased, the 3rd level of thinking about teaching could be identified more often. Teachers also used more often teaching development methods related to cooperation and active participation and enhancement of pedagogical skills. Furthermore, they considered the factors related to lack of pedagogical skills and motivation to be lesser impediments to teaching development.

Pyhä Kolminaisuus vai pilven reunalla istuva partasuu? : Jumalakuva evankelisluterilaisissa ja ortodoksissa 1.–4.-luokan uskonnon oppikirjoissa 1970–80- ja 2000-luvuilla

A concept of god is a wholeness that an individual experiences as God. The Christian concept of god is based on triune God: Father, Son, and the Holy Spirit. The concept of god is examined in different kinds of contexts particularly between the 1940's and the 1970's. Many researches of school books have widely been made in Finland, but, however, only a few from the point of view of the concept of god. Considering this, the concept of god in the school books of Evangelical Lutheran and Orthodox religion from first to fourth grade in 1970–80 and 2000 is examined in this survey. Additionally, the concept of god in curricula between years 1970 and 2004 is studied. The perspective on the concept of god is the change in the course of time and denominational emphasis. As a first hypothesis, God the Father is represented in books in 21st century as a kind and loving figure. As a second hypothesis, the Trinity and the Holy Spirit get more space in Orthodox books comparing with the Lutheran books. Twelve school books of Evangelical Lutheran and Orthodox religion from first to fourth grade were used as a research material. The books were from four different series between the years 1978 and 2005. Teacher's guidebooks and student's exercise books were left outside of this survey. The research material was analyzed by using abductive content analysis and methodological triangulation. This study included both qualitative and quantitative aspects. The classification system which defined the classifying of concept of god from the research material was consisted of the basis of research material, former reseach, and subtext of used theories. The number of mentions in concept of god was higher in books from the 21st century. In Lutheran books, the change was seen as a growth of the category of God the Father. In Orthodox books, the trend was opposite: the category of Jesus the Son had grown. Differing from the presupposition, the features of loving God in new books had less emphasis than in older books in both churces. The mentions of the Holy Spirit and Trinity were marginal. In the Orthodox books, the categories were bigger, as it was presupposed. It could be seen, that the books confirmed the legalistic period of the concept of god on 3rd and 4th grades. The mentions of concept of god in curriculas have diminished and generalized. The diminution was seen most radically in the curriculum from the year 1994. The results tell something about social changes and views of innovation in curricula. In books the change was not perceived that bright. The idea of the concept of god getting shrank and decreased during the time can be refused.

Early-onset depressive disorders,related mental health disorders and substance use-A prospective : longitudinal study of Finnish twins born 1983-1987

Early-onset psychiatric illnesses effects scatter to academic achievements as well as functioning in familial and social environments. From a public health point of view, depressive disorders are the most significant mental health disorders that begin in adolescence. Using prospective and longitudinal design, this study aimed to increase the understanding of early-onset depressive disorders, related mental health disorders and developing substance use in a large population-derived sample of adolescent Finnish twins. The participants of this study, FinnTwin12, an ongoing longitudinal population-based study, came from Finnish families with twins born in 1983-87 (exhaustive of five birth cohorts, identified from Finland s Central Population Register). With follow-up ongoing at age 20-24, this thesis assessed adolescent mental health in the first three waves, starting from baseline age 11-12 to follow-ups at age 14 and 17½. Some 5600 twins participated in questionnaire assessments of a wide range of health related behaviors. Mental health was further assessed among an intensively studied subsample of 1852 adolescents, who completed also professionally administered interviews at age 14, which provided data for full DSM-IV/III-R (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Health disorders, 4th and 3rd editions) diagnoses. The participation rates of the study were 87-92%. The results of the study suggest, that the diagnostic criteria for major depressive disorder (MDD) may not capture youth with clinically significant early-onset depressive conditions outside clinical settings. Milder cases of depression, namely adolescents fulfilling the diagnostic criteria for minor depressive disorder, a qualitatively similar condition to MDD with fewer symptoms are also associated with marked suicidal thoughts, plans and attempts, recurrences and a high degree of comorbidity. Prospectively and longitudinally, early-onset depressive disorders were of substantial importance in the context of other mental health disorders and substance use behaviors: These data from a large population-derived sample established a substantial overlap between early-onset depressive disorders and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in adolescent females, both of them significantly predictive for development of substance use among girls. Only in females baseline DSM-IV ADHD symptoms were strong predictors of alcohol abuse and dependence and illicit drug use at age 14 and frequent alcohol use and illicit drug use at age 17.½ when conduct disorder and previous substance use were controlled for. Early-onset depressive disorders were also prospectively and longitudinally associated to daily smoking behavior, smokeless tobacco use, frequent alcohol use and illicit drug use and eating disorders. Analysis of discordant twins suggested that these predictive associations were independent of familial confounds, such as family income, structure and parental models. In sum, early-onset depressive disorders predict subsequent involvement of substance use and psychiatric morbidity. A heightened risk for substance use is substantial also among those depressed below categorical diagnosis of MDD. Whether early recognition and interventions among these young people hold potential for substance use prevention further in their lives has potential public health significance and calls for more research. Data from this population-derived sample with balanced representation of boys and girls, suggested that boys and girls with ADHD behaviors may differ from each other in their vulnerability to substance use and depressive disorders: the data suggest more adverse substance use outcome for girls that was not attenuated by conduct disorder or previous substance use. Further, the prospective associations of early-onset depressive disorders and future elevated levels of addictive substance use is not explained by familial factors supporting future substance use, which could have important implications for substance use prevention.

La música en la fiesta del dios Xipe Totec

In Aztec mythology and religion, Xipe Totec ("our lord the flayed one") was a life-death-rebirth deity, god of agriculture, vegetation, the east, disease, spring, goldsmiths, silversmiths and the seasons. The music used for his worship has been described by a diversity of documents (carved stones, depicted codices, and chronicles made by the first European friars arrived to Mexico). This article explores the symbolic content of these descriptions, especially in association with Xochipilli Macuilxochitl, master of music and poetry.

Puunoston kehittäminen Stora Enso Metsän Helsingin palvelupisteessä

The operation environment in the roundwood trade in Finland in the 1990’s include several changes. They are changes in the structure of non-industrial private forest (NIPF) ownership, forest taxation, in forest legislation, in price recommendation agreement, diminishing resources of forestry extension services, etc. At the same time, the roundwood demand has been rising. All these developments cause uncertainty in wood procurement organisations, and call for research to find out how to adapt into the changing environment. The objective of this study is to produce information for roundwood purchasing planning and cus-tomer satisfaction management to be used by Stora Enso Metsä Customer Service, Helsinki. For this pur-pose, data needs to be gathered about the urban NIPFs and their forest estates, behaviour related to forestry and timber-selling, customer satisfaction in their latest timber selling transaction, and their opinions about Enso’s new customer service office and its service concept. To fulfil the objective of the study, a NIPF -owner -survey (N=1064, response rate 39,7%) was con-ducted in October 1998-January 1999. The sample was made on the basis of the marketing database of Stora Enso Oyj Forest Customer Service in Helsinki. In planning the frame of reference of the empirical study, the model of service quality by Grönroos was applied. The following aspects were included in the 7-page questionnaire: demographic, sosio-economic and forest estate background, relation to the forest service supply, behaviour related to forestry, timber-selling motives and behaviour, last contact organisation and its image in forestry business, expectations and percep-tions in the latest timber-selling transactions, and behavioural intentions. The results revealed that the share of women, pensioners and academically educated people among forest owners was quite high. The majority of the forest estates of the metropolitan forest owners were situ-ated in the provinces of South Finland and East Finland. The average forest estate area was considerably smaller than in a previous study. Economic and recreational objectives were most important in the use of forests. Forest Associations were involved in half of the roundwood sales transactions of the respondents in the metropolitan area. The wood quantity of transactions was considerably higher than the average in the whole country. Bank-organised forest-related activities, taxation infos and trips to the forest were the most popular activities. Among the services, silvicultural advices were needed mostly and stub treatment least. Brochure material related to stumpage timber sales and taxation were considered most important compared to material related to delivery sales. The service expectations were at highest for women and they were less satisfied with the service than men. 2nd and 3rd generation residents of the metropolitan area thought about the new customer service concept more positively than the 1st generation residents. Internet users under 60 years thought more positively about new satellite picture-based woodlot search concept. Cross-tabulation of factor scores against background variables indicated that women with relatively low education level a greater need to sell roundwood than entrepreneurs, white-collar workers and directors, and Internet users. Suspiciousness towards timber procurement organisations was relatively strong among women and those whose forest income share of the total income was either null or over 20 %. The average customer satisfaction score was negative in all nine questions. Statistical differences be-tween different companies did not exist in the average satisfaction scores. Stora Enso’s Helsinki forest cus-tomer service could choose the ability to purchase all timber grades as its competitive advantage. Out of nine service dimension included in the questionnaire, in this particular service dimension, Enso’s Helsinki forest customer service’s score exceeded most all organisations’ average customer satisfaction score. On the basis of importance – performance matrix, advice and quidance could have been provided more to the forest owners in their latest timber–selling transaction.

Alikasvoksen mittaus ja kartoitus laserkeilauksella

Tasaikäisen metsän alle muodostuvilla alikasvoksilla on merkitystä puunkorjuun, metsänuudistamisen, näkemä-ja maisema-analyysien sekä biodiversiteetin ja hiilitaseen arvioinnin kannalta. Ilma-aluksista tehtävä laserkeilaus on osoittautunut tehokkaaksi kaukokartoitusmenetelmäksi varttuneiden puustojen mittauksessa. Laserkeilauksen käyttöönotto operatiivisessa metsäsuunnittelussa mahdollistaa aiempaa tarkemman tiedon tuottamisen alikasvoksista, mikäli alikasvoksen ominaisuuksia voidaan tulkita laseraineistoista. Tässä työssä käytettiin tarkasti mitattuja maastokoealoja ja kaikulaserkeilausaineistoja (discrete return LiDAR) usealta vuodelta (1–2 km lentokorkeus, 0,9–9,7 pulssia m-2). Laserkeilausaineistot oli hankittu Optech ALTM3100 ja Leica ALS50-II sensoreilla. Koealat edustavat suomalaisia tasaikäisiä männiköitä eri kehitysvaiheissa. Tutkimuskysymykset olivat: 1) Minkälainen on alikasvoksesta saatu lasersignaali yksittäisen pulssin tasolla ja mitkä tekijät signaaliin vaikuttavat? 2) Mikä on käytännön sovelluksissa hyödynnettävien aluepohjaisten laserpiirteiden selitysvoima alikasvospuuston ominaisuuksien ennustamisessa? Erityisesti haluttiin selvittää, miten laserpulssin energiahäviöt ylempiin latvuskerroksiin vaikuttavat saatuun signaaliin, ja voidaanko laserkaikujen intensiteetille tehdä energiahäviöiden korjaus. Puulajien väliset erot laserkaiun intensiteetissä olivat pieniä ja vaihtelivat keilauksesta toiseen. Intensiteetin käyttömahdollisuudet alikasvoksen puulajin tulkinnassa ovat siten hyvin rajoittuneet. Energiahäviöt ylempiin latvuskerroksiin aiheuttivat alikasvoksesta saatuun lasersignaaliin kohinaa. Energiahäviöiden korjaus tehtiin alikasvoksesta saaduille laserpulssin 2. ja 3. kaiuille. Korjauksen avulla pystyttiin pienentämään kohteen sisäistä intensiteetin hajontaa ja parantamaan kohteiden luokittelutarkkuutta alikasvoskerroksessa. Käytettäessä 2. kaikuja oikeinluokitusprosentti luokituksessa maan ja yleisimmän puulajin välillä oli ennen korjausta 49,2–54,9 % ja korjauksen jälkeen 57,3–62,0 %. Vastaavat kappa-arvot olivat 0,03–0,13 ja 0,10–0,22. Tärkein energiahäviöitä selittävä tekijä oli pulssista saatujen aikaisempien kaikujen intensiteetti, mutta hieman merkitystä oli myös pulssin leikkausgeometrialla ylemmän latvuskerroksen puiden kanssa. Myös 3. kaiuilla luokitustarkkuus parani. Puulajien välillä havaittiin eroja siinä, kuinka herkästi ne tuottavat kaiun laserpulssin osuessa puuhun. Kuusi tuotti kaiun suuremmalla todennäköisyydellä kuin lehtipuut. Erityisen selvä tämä ero oli pulsseilla, joissa oli energiahäviöitä. Laserkaikujen korkeusjakaumapiirteet voivat siten olla riippuvaisia puulajista. Sensorien välillä havaittiin selviä eroja intensiteettijakaumissa, mikä vaikeuttaa eri sensoreilla hankittujen aineistojen yhdistämistä. Myös kaiun todennäköisyydet erosivat jonkin verran sensorien välillä, mikä aiheutti pieniä eroavaisuuksia kaikujen korkeusjakaumiin. Aluepohjaisista laserpiirteistä löydettiin alikasvoksen runkolukua ja keskipituutta hyvin selittäviä piirteitä, kun rajoitettiin tarkastelu yli 1 m pituisiin puihin. Piirteiden selitysvoima oli parempi runkoluvulle kuin keskipituudelle. Selitysvoima ei merkittävästi alentunut pulssitiheyden pienentyessä, mikä on hyvä asia käytännön sovelluksia ajatellen. Lehtipuun osuutta ei pystytty selittämään. Tulosten perusteella kaikulaserkeilausta voi olla mahdollista hyödyntää esimerkiksi ennakkoraivaustarpeen arvioinnissa. Sen sijaan alikasvoksen tarkempi luokittelu (esim. puulajitulkinta) voi olla vaikeaa. Kaikkein pienimpiä alikasvospuita ei pystytä havaitsemaan. Lisää tutkimuksia tarvitaan tulosten yleistämiseksi erilaisiin metsiköihin.

Dietary aspects of cow's milk allergy in young children

Cow s milk allergy (CMA) affects about 2-6% of infants and young children. Environmental factors during early life are suggested to play a role in the development of allergic diseases. One of these factors is likely to be maternal diet during pregnancy and lactation. The association between maternal diet and development of CMA in offspring is not well known, but diet could contain factors that facilitate development of tolerance. After an established food allergy, another issue is gaining tolerance towards an antigen that causes symptoms. The strictness of the elimination depends on the individual level of tolerance. This study aimed at validating a questionnaire used to inquire about food allergies in children, at researching associations between maternal diet during pregnancy and lactation and subsequent development of cow s milk allergy in the offspring, and at evaluating the degree of adherence to a therapeutic elimination diet of children with CMA and factors associated with the adherence and age of recovery. These research questions were addressed in a prospective birth cohort born between 1997 and 2004 at the Tampere and Oulu University Hospitals. Altogether 6753 children of the Diabetes Prediction and Prevention (DIPP) Nutrition cohort were investigated. Questionnaires regarding allergic diseases are often used in studies without validation. High-quality valid tools are therefore needed. Two validation studies were conducted here: one by comparing parentally reported food allergies with information gathered from patient records of 1122 children, and the other one by comparing parentally reported CMA with information in the reimbursement records of special infant formulae in the registers of the Social Insurance Institution for 6753 children. Both of these studies showed that the questionnaire works well and is a valid tool for measuring food allergies in children. In the first validation study, Cohen s kappa values were within 0.71-0.88 for CMA, 0.74-0.82 for cereal allergy, and 0.66-0.86 for any reported food allergy. In the second validation study, the kappa value was 0.79, sensitivity 0.958, and specificity 0.965 for reported and diagnosed CMA. To investigate the associations between maternal diet during pregnancy and lactation and CMA in offspring, 6288 children were studied. Maternal diet during pregnancy (8th month) and lactation (3rd month) was assessed by a validated, 181-item semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire (FFQ), and as an endpoint register-based information on diagnosed CMA was obtained from the Social Insurance Institution and complemented with parental reports of CMA in their children. The associations between maternal food consumption and CMA in offspring were analyzed by logistic regression comparing the highest and lowest quarters with two middle quarters of consumption and adjusted for several potential confounding factors. High maternal intake of milk products (OR 0.56, 95% CI 0.37-0.86 p = 0.002) was associated with a lower risk of CMA in offspring. When stratified according to maternal allergic rhinitis or asthma, a protective association of high use of milk products with CMA was seen in children of allergy-free mothers (OR 0.30, 95% CI 0.13 - 0.69, p < 0.001), but not in children of allergic mothers. Moreover, low maternal consumption of fish during pregnancy was associated with a higher risk of CMA in children of mothers with allergic rhinitis or asthma (OR 1.47, 95% CI 0.96 - 2.27 for the lowest quarter, p = 0.043). In children of nonallergic mothers, this association was not seen. Maternal diet during lactation was not associated with CMA in offspring, apart from an inverse association between citrus and kiwi fruit consumption and CMA. These results imply that maternal diet during pregnancy may contain factors protective against CMA in offspring, more so than maternal diet during lactation. These results need to be confirmed in other studies before giving recommendations to the public. To evaluate the degree of adherence to a therapeutic elimination diet in children with diagnosed CMA, food records of 267 children were studied. Subsequent food records were examined to assess the age at reintroduction of milk products to the child s diet. Nine of ten families adhered to the elimination diet of the child with extreme accuracy. Older and monosensitized children had more often small amounts of cow s milk protein in their diet (p < 0.001 for both). Adherence to the diet was not related to any other sociodemographic factor studied or to the age at reintroduction of milk products to the diet. Low intakes of vitamin D, calcium, and riboflavin are of concern in children following a cow s milk-free diet. In summary, we found that the questionnaires used in the DIPP study are valid in investigating CMA in young children; that there are associations between maternal diet during pregnancy and lactation and the development of CMA in offspring; and that the therapeutic elimination diet in children with diagnosed CMA is rigorously adhered to.