La modernización entre cafetales : San José, Costa Rica, 1880-1930

This work examines the urban modernization of San José, Costa Rica, between 1880 and 1930, using a cultural approach to trace the emergence of the bourgeois city in a small Central American capital, within the context of order and progress. As proposed by Henri Lefebvre, Manuel Castells and Edward Soja, space is given its rightful place as protagonist. The city, subject of this study, is explored as a seat of social power and as the embodiment of a cultural transformation that took shape in that space, a transformation spearheaded by the dominant social group, the Liberal elite. An analysis of the product built environment allows us to understand why the city grew in a determined manner: how the urban space became organized and how its infrastructure and services distributed. Although the emphasis is on the Liberal heyday from 1880-1930, this study also examines the history of the city since its origins in the late colonial period through its consolidation as a capital during the independent era, in order to characterize the nineteenth century colonial city that prevailed up to 1890 s. A diverse array of primary sources including official acts, memoirs, newspaper sources, maps and plans, photographs, and travelogues are used to study the initial phase of San Jose s urban growth. The investigation places the first period of modern urban growth at the turn of the nineteenth century within the prevailing ideological and political context of Positivism and Liberalism. The ideas of the city s elite regarding progress were translated into and reflected in the physical transformation of the city and in the social construction of space. Not only the transformations but also the limits and contradictions of the process of urban change are examined. At the same time, the reorganization of the city s physical space and the beginnings of the ensanche are studied. Hygiene as an engine of urban renovation is explored by studying the period s new public infrastructure (including pipelines, sewer systems, and the use of asphalt pavement) as part of the Saneamiento of San José. The modernization of public space is analyzed through a study of the first parks, boulevards and monuments and the emergence of a new urban culture prominently displayed in these green spaces. Parks and boulevards were new public and secular places of power within the modern city, used by the elite to display and educate the urban population into the new civic and secular traditions. The study goes on to explore the idealized image of the modern city through an analysis of European and North American travelogues and photography. The new esthetic of theatrical-spectacular representation of the modern city constructed a visual guide of how to understand and come to know the city. A partial and selective image of generalized urban change presented only the bourgeois facade and excluded everything that challenged the idea of progress. The enduring patterns of spatial and symbolic exclusion built into Costa Rica s capital city at the dawn of the twentieth century shed important light on the long-term political social and cultural processes that have created the troubled urban landscapes of contemporary Latin America.

Isänmaa ja Ranska : Suomalainen frankofilia 1880-1914

In Finland the period 1880 -1914 constituted an essential phase in the creation of the great national project as well as it was a golden time of Francophilia. With Francophilia, i.e. French-mindedness, is here understood a collectively upheld strong sympathy towards France and French culture. However, the Francophilia of late nineteenth century Finland was free from apparent political intentions and remained a chosen disposition. The strength of its drive was not only based on the older European admiration of everything French, but also on the growing fascination for a novelty emerging besides the traditional influences of the Germanic culture. In Finnish society Francophilia mostly worked as an opposite force to the most confined conceptions of what was considered national ; as a consequence France came to denote more than a country and Francophilia contained an important symbolical meaning in the construction of the Finnish nation. The main tasks of the study are to introduce as the first large historical presentation of the subject a covering examination of the many descriptions of Paris-phases of assorted artists, authors, and intellectuals, to clarify the mental relationship of the Finnish intelligentsia to France prior to national independence, and finally to provide these developments with case studies of certain life paths. However, the examination is not biographical, because the starting point remains within the rhetoric arguments of Francophilia and patriotism as these appeared within the public sphere. Historical persons have thus been dealt with primarily as reflectors of the then-current French-minded mentality. Such Francophiles in Finland were first and foremost Werner Söderhjelm, Juhani Aho, L. Onerva and V. A. Koskenniemi. The networks of the Finnish cultural field are mostly displayed through these examples. In previous research the intensive relationship of Finnish artists and authors with France has not been connected with actual concepts of nationalism. The respective periods of the intellectuals in Paris have simply been viewed as devoid of ideological links with the contemporary advancement of the fatherland, or even as opposites to the patriotic pursuits in Finland. From the viewpoint of this study these now canonized creators of a Finnish culture are primarily seen as patriots and fellow countrymen, and only secondly as artists and artist s colleagues. The dissertation is constructed as both a regional survey of the idealization of France and a study of Finnish history through the mirror of Francophilia. As such France only held an instrumental role for the receiving culture, i.e. for the construction of Finland, as no "objective truths" were sought for in France. Keywords: France, francophilia, Finnishness, national project, Paris

Irish Folklore Commission 1935-1970 : history, ideology, methodology

Between 1935 and 1970 the state-funded Irish Folklore Commission (Coimisiún Béaloideasa Éireann) assembled one of the great folklore collections of the world under the direction of Séamus Ó Duilearga (James Hamilton Delargy). The aim of this study is to recount and assess the work and achievement of this commission. The cultural, linguistic, political and ideological factors that had a bearing on the establishment and making permanent of the Commission and that impinged on many aspects of its work are here elucidated. The genesis of the Commission is traced and the vision and mission of Séamus Ó Duilearga are outlined. The negotiations that preceded the setting up of the Commission in 1935 as well as protracted efforts from 1940 to 1970 to place it on a permanent foundation are recounted and examined at length. All the various collecting programmes and other activities of the Commission are described in detail and many aspects of its work are assessed. This study also deals with the working methods and conditions of employment of the Commission s field and Head Office staff as well as with Séamus Ó Duilearga s direction of the Commission. In executing this work extensive use has been made of primary sources in archives and libraries in Ireland, Sweden, Finland, Estonia, and North America. This is the first major study of this world-famous institute, which has been praised in passing in numerous publications, but here for the first time its work and achievement are detailed comprehensively and subjected to scholarly scrutiny. This study should be of interest not only to students of Irish oral tradition but to folklorists everywhere. The history of the Irish Folklore Commission is a part of a wider history, that of the history of folkloristics in Europe and North America in particular. Moreover, this work has relevance for many areas of the developing world today, where conditions are not dissimilar to those that pertained in Ireland in the 1930's when this great salvage operation was funded by the young, independent Irish state. It is also hoped that this work will be of practical assistance to scholars and the general public when utilising these collections, and that furthermore it will stimulate research into the assembling of other national collections of folklore as well as into the history of folkloristics in other countries, subjects which in recent years are beginning to attract more and more scholarly attention.

Viemärin päässä Kotkan kaupunki : Vesiensuojelun kehitys Kymijoen itäisen päähaaran suulla 1945-1970

The focus of this thesis is the marine environmental history of the eastern part and the estuary of the Kymi river from 1945 to 1970. There is no previous research on this area from an environmentally historical perspective, nor have many of the sources here discussed been previously used. Therefore the thesis expands academic understanding of local environmental processes and protection in and around the city of Kotka and the Kymi river. The thesis falls within the methodological field of socio-political history, as the research focus is centered on the local process of establishing the nature of environmental problems and solving them. The principal assumption has been that the city of Kotka, due to its ongoing expansion, was slow to respond to environmental hazards. The Kymi river was among the most degraded bodies of water during this period. Kotka on the other hand was a major center of wood processing industry and one of Finlands major industrial ports. In the past the river and its estuary had provided ample resources for fishers. It is this contradictory use of the environment that allows one to discuss the local struggle for the correct use of the environment. Primary sources include local and city archives, environmental studies, and legal documents linked with the above. The archives of the city of Kotka and of various private associations form the core sources. Environmental studies from the research period have been dealt with as sources to the local political power struggle. Alongside with current environmental research they also provide insight into the state of the environment. Another goals has been to accumulate environmental research for a future multidisciplinary study in this area. As a final conclusion it can be said that environmental degradation was widely understood as a problem only in the 1960s. The influential role of the city of Kotka however determined the pace with which these problems were then solved.

Jukka Ruohomäen sävellystuotanto ja tyylipiirteet 1970-luvulla : Esimerkkianalyysi teoksesta Pisces

Tutkimuksessani olen keskittynyt tarkastelemaan säveltäjä Jukka Ruohomäen (s.1947) 1970-luvun sävellystuotantoa ja teosten tyylipiirteitä sekä Ruohomäen toimintaa elektroakustisen musiikin parissa. Ruohomäen 1970-luvun teokset kuuluvat elektroakustisen nauhamusiikin lajiin. Aiempaa tutkimusta hänen musiikistaan ei ole tehty. Tutkimuksen kohteen tarkastelua varten työssä luodaan kuva elektroakustisen musiikin historian, kulttuurin ja analyysin kehitykseen sekä elektroakustisen musiikin terminologiaan ja työtapoihin. Elektroakustisen musiikin historiallista kehitystä seurataan 1800-luvulta 1960- ja 1970-lukujen taitteeseen asti, jotta voidaan ymmärtää, mihin kulttuurihistorialliseen kontekstiin Ruohomäen ensimmäisen sävellyskauden (1970–1978) tuotanto on syntynyt. Historiallisesta näkökulmasta tutkimus on kartoittavaa perustutkimusta. Elektroakustisen musiikin analyysimenetelmiä esittelevässä osassa esitellään ne keskeiset menetelmät, joita tässä työssä käytetään Ruohomäen tuotannon analysointiin. Analyysin pääpaino on teosten äänimateriaalien ja rakenteen tarkastelussa. Tähän tarkasteluun valittuja analyysimenetelmiä ovat Simon Emmersonin elektroakustisten teosten jaottelu äänimateriaalien narratiivisuuden ja syntaktisten piirteiden suhteen, Denis Smalleyn spektromorfologia ja Robert Coganin musiikin kuvaamiseen esittelemä sonogrammikuvaaja. Ruohomäen 1970-luvun teosten esittelyn lisäksi tarkemman analyysin kohteeksi on valittu sävellys Pisces (1975–76). Teosesittelyjen pohjalta muodostetaan kuva Ruohomäen ensimmäisen sävellyskauden vaikutteista ja sävellystyylin muuttumisesta. Ruohomäki painottaa sävellysprosessissa kuuntelun merkitystä ja hänen teoksensa syntyvät pikemminkin vuorovaikutuksessa äänimateriaalin ja sävellysteknologian kanssa kuin tarkan etukäteissuunnitelman ohjaamina. Varhaisten teosten populaarimusiikkivaikutteista Ruohomäen musiikki kehittyi 1970-luvulla kohti puhtaampaa konkreettisen musiikin traditiota. Minimalistiset ja stokastisen musiikin ideat ovat kuultavissa kaikissa ensimmäisen sävellyskauden teoksissa. Analyysi teoksesta Pisces tarkentaa kuvaa Ruohomäen sävellysten tyylipiirteistä. Teosanalyysissä luodaan pohjaa myös Ruohomäen kahden sävellyskauden vertailuun. Jatkotutkimuksen kannalta mielenkiintoiseksi kysymykseksi nousee Ruohomäen kahden sävellyskauden vertailu sekä sävellysteknologian kehityksen ja elektroakustisen musiikin estetiikan suhteen tarkastelu tämän vertailun avulla.

Erityisopetus muutoksen kynnyksellä - tilastollinen kuvaus erityisopetusjärjestelmästä ja sen määrällisestä kehityksestä 1970-luvun lopulta vuoteen 2008

The number of Finnish pupils attending special education has increased for more than a decade (Tilastokeskus 1999, 2000, 2001, 2003, 2004, 2005a, 2006b, 2007b, 2008b, 2008e, 2009b; Virtanen ja Ratilainen 1996). In the year 2007 nearly third of Finnish comprehensive school pupils took part in special needs education. According to the latest statistics, in the autumn of 2008 approximately 47 000 pupils have been admitted or transferred to special education and approximately 126 000 pupils received part-time special education during the 2007 - 2008 academic year. (Tilastokeskus 2008b, 2009b.) The Finnish special education system is currently under review. The Reform, both in legislation and in practice, began nationwide in the year 2008 (e.g. Special education strategy document, November 2007 and the development project Kelpo). The aim of the study was the statistical description of the Finnish special education system and on the other hand to gain a deeper understanding about the Finnish special education system and its quantitative increase, by analysis based on the nationwide statistical information. Earlier studies have shown that the growth in special education is affected by multiple independent variables and cannot be solely explained by the pupil characteristics. The statistical overview and analysis have been carried out in two parts. In the first part, the description and analysis were based on statistical time series from the academic year 1979 -1980 until 2008. While, in the second, more detailed description and analysis, based on comparable time series from 1995 to 2008 and from 2001-2002 to 2007-2008, is presented. Historical perspective was one part of this study. There was an attempt to find reasons explaining the observed growth in the special needs education from late 1960s to 2008. The majority of the research was based on the nationwide statistics information. In addition to this, materials including educational legislation literature, different kind of records of special education and preceding studies were also used to support the research. The main results of the study, are two statistical descriptions and time series analysis of the quantitative increase of the special needs education. Further, a summary of the plausible factors behind the special education system change and its quantitative increase, is presented. The conclusions coming from the study can be summarised as follows: the comparable statistical time series analysis suggests that the growth in special education after the year 1999 could be a consequence of the changes in the structure of special education and that new group of pupils have been directed to special needs education. Keywords: Special education, comprehensive school, description, statistics, change

Ammatti, ihminen ja maailmankuva murroksessa : Tutkimus yliopistokirjastoista ja kirjastonhoitajista tietoyhteiskuntakaudella 1970-2005

PROFESSION, PERSON AND WORLDVIEW AT A TURNING POINT A Study of University Libraries and Library Staff in the Information Age 1970 - 2005 The incongruity between commonly held ideas of libraries and librarians and the changes that have occurred in libraries since 2000 provided the impulse for this work. The object is to find out if the changes of the last few decades have penetrated to a deeper level, that is, if they have caused changes in the values and world views of library staff and management. The study focuses on Finnish university libraries and the people who work in them. The theoretical framework is provided by the concepts of world view (values, the concept of time, man and self, the experience of the supernatural and the holy, community and leadership). The viewpoint, framework and methods of the study place it in the area of Comparative Religion by applying the world view framework. The time frame is the information age, which has deeply affected Finnish society and scholarly communication from 1970 to 2005. The source material of the study comprises 30 life stories; somewhat more than half of the stories come from the University of Helsinki, and the rest from the other eight universities. Written sources include library journals, planning documents and historical accounts of libraries. The experiences and research diaries of the research worker are also used as source material. The world view questions are discussed on different levels: 1) recognition of the differences and similarities in the values of the library sphere and the university sphere, 2) examination of the world view elements, community and leadership based on the life stories, and 3) the three phases of the effects of information technology on the university libraries and those who work in them. In comparing the values of the library sphere and the university sphere, the appreciation of creative work and culture as well as the founding principles of science and research are jointly held values. The main difference between the values in the university and library spheres concerns competition and service. Competition is part of the university as an institution of research work. The core value of the library sphere is service, which creates the essential ethos of library work. The ethical principles of the library sphere also include the values of democracy and equality as well as the value of intellectual freedom. There is also a difference between an essential value in the university sphere, the value of autonomy and academic freedom on the one hand, and the global value of the library sphere - organizing operations in a practical and efficient way on the other hand. Implementing this value can also create tension between the research community and the library. Based on the life stories, similarities can be found in the values of the library staff members. The value of service seems to be of primary importance for all who are committed to library work and who find it interesting and rewarding. The service role of the library staff can be extended from information services provider to include the roles of teacher, listener and even therapist, all needed in a competitive research community. The values of democracy and equality also emerge fairly strongly. The information age development has progressed in three phases in the libraries from the 1960s onward. In the third phase beginning in the mid 1990s, the increased usage of electronic resources has set fundamental changes in motion. The changes have affected basic values and the concept of time as well as the hierarchies and valuations within the library community. In addition to and as a replacement for the library possessing a local identity and operational model, a networked, global library is emerging. The changes have brought tension both to the library communities and to the relationship between the university community and the library. Future orientation can be said to be the key concept for change; it affects where the ideals and models for operations are taken from. Future orientation manifests itself as changes in metaphors, changes in the model of a good librarian and as communal valuations. Tension between the libraries and research communities can arise if the research community pictures the library primarily as a traditional library building with a local identity, whereas the 21st century library staff and directors are affected by future orientation and membership in a networked library sphere, working proactively to develop their libraries.

"Me emme ole kirkkoa politisoimassa" : Keskustapuolue ja Suomen evankelis-luterilaisen kirkon kirkolliskokous vuosina 1970-1977

Tutkielma käsittelee historiantutkimuksen keinoin Keskustapuolueen ja Suomen evankelis-luterilaisen kirkon kirkolliskokouksen suhdetta ja suhteen kehittymistä vuosina 1970 1977. Aihepiiriä lähestytään sekä henkilö- että organisaatiotasolla. Päälähteinä ovat kirkolliskokouksen pöytäkirjat sekä Keskustapuolueen eri puolue-elinten, ennen kaikkea kirkkopoliittisen toimikunnan, arkistokokoelmat. Keskustapuolue aktivoitui muiden puolueiden tavoin kirkkopolitiikassaan 1960- ja 1970-luvun vaihteessa. Vanhojen herätysliikkeiden edustajista muodostetulla puolueen kirkkopoliittisella toimikunnalla oli tässä aktivoitumisessa keskeinen sija. Vuosikymmenen alussa kirkon politisoituminen nähtiin toimikunnassa pääasiassa myönteisenä kehityksenä. Pyrkiessään säilyttämään herätysliikkeiden luottamuksen toimikunta joutui kuitenkin vuodesta 1974 lähtien muuttamaan kantaansa ja korostamaan, ettei Keskustapuolue ollut politisoimassa kirkkoa. Puolueen kirkkopoliitikkojen mukaan keskusta pyrki itse asiassa kirkkopolitiikallaan vapauttamaan kirkon muiden puolueiden politikoinnilta. Totta olikin, että kirkkopoliittinen toimikunta pysyi melko pitkälle vaiti opillisista kysymyksistä. Sen sijaan kirkon hallinnon demokratisointia ja köyhien seurakuntien aseman parantamista ajettiin voimakkaasti. Vaikka keskustasuuntautuneet kirkolliskokousedustajat eivät muodostaneetkaan toiminnassaan mitään yhtenäistä ryhmää, he kunnostautuivat hyvin näiden kysymysten esillä pitämisessä, aivan samoin kuin raittiuden ajamisessa. Kirkossa kuunneltiin 1970-luvun alussa puolueiden vaatimuksia ja uudistettiin hallintoa. Vuosikymmenen edetessä Keskustapuolueen vaikuttamispyrkimykset kirkolliskokouksen asiakysymyksiin kuitenkin vähenivät. Samaan aikaan kirkolliskokous puolestaan aktivoitui yhteiskunnallisille päättäjille, ja siten myös Keskustapuolueelle, suuntaamissaan kannanotoissa. Keskustapuolueessa kuunneltiinkin tarkasti kirkon ääntä. Haluttiin asettua samalle kannalle kirkon kanssa ja puolustaa kirkkoa. Siten pyrittiin vastaamaan SKL:n nousuun ja toisaalta tarjoamaan vaihtoehto SDP:n kirkkopolitiikalle, joka tähtäsi kirkon ja valtion erottamiseen. Vaikka keskustan vaikuttamispyrkimykset kirkolliskokouksen asiakysymyksiin vaimenivat tutkimuskauden kuluessa, puolue panosti jatkuvasti enemmän kirkolliskokousedustajien vaaleihin ja kirkolliskokouksessa suoritettaviin henkilövalintoihin. Vuonna 1977 keskustassa viritettiin puolueorganisaatiota jo hyvin tehokkaasti seuraavan vuoden kirkolliskokousvaaleihin. SDP:n haastaminen kirkollisissa henkilövalinnoissa alkoi toden teolla vuonna 1973 eli samaan aikaan, kun keskustan ja SDP:n nimityskilpa käynnistyi muuallakin yhteiskunnassa. SDP:n uhalla perusteltiin keskustassa myös omaa kirkkopoliittista aktiivisuutta. Keskusta pyrki haastamaan SDP:n kirkossa paljolti samoin keinoin ja samalla retoriikalla kuin ammattiyhdistysliikkeessä. Keskustapuolue säilytti edustuksensa kirkolliskokouksessa muita puolueita paremmin tutkimuskauden kuluessa. Keskustasuuntautuneet kirkolliskokousedustajat olivat lähes poikkeuksetta maallikoita ja tulivat lähinnä puolueen vahvoilta kannatusalueilta, kuten Lapuan ja Oulun hiippakunnasta. Edustajien joukossa vanhojen herätysliikkeiden osuus oli huomattava, ja keskustassa pyrittiinkin saamaan omiksi ehdokkaiksi nimenomaan herätysliike-, ei niinkään puoluevaikuttajia. Avainsanat: Kirkolliskokoukset, puolueet, Keskustapuolue, kirkkopolitiikka, politisoituminen, kirkolliset vaalit, herätysliikkeet

NORDEK : A Plan for Increased Nordic Economic Co-operation and Integration 1968-1970

For the first time the attempt of Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden to increase Nordic economic co-operation and integration (NORDEK 1968-1970) is analysed by using records from the four governments archives and interviews with central actors participating. A dominating argument has until now been that dynamics in Nordic economic integration is different from dynamics in European integration. This archive based study disproves the myth however of ideological Nordism and of short term political developments outside Norden as most important for the NORDEK initiative. The NORDEK initiative was actually more a consequence of a long term socioeconomic and socio-political path dependant process. The study also disproves the myth that the NORDEK plan was a political and ideological symbol without socioeconomic substance. The purpose with NORDEK was to create a better basis for generating economic growth and social welfare. The proposed NORDEK institutions were therefore developed to promote economic progress. The study finally shows that the NORDEK failure in 1970 was not a result of lacking economic rationale or incompatible economic interests. The failure was a result of a power struggle in Finnish domestic policy and lacking political will in the other Nordic countries to continue without Finland.

Vallankumous kotona! : Arkielämän visuaalinen murros 1960-luvun lopussa ja 1970-luvun alussa

Revolution at home! Visual Changes in Everyday Life in Finland in the Late 1960s and Early 1970s The purpose of my research was to investigate the visual changes in private homes in Finland during the 1960s and 1970s. The 1960s is often described as a turning point in Finnish life, a time when the society's previous agricultural orientation began to give way first to an industrial orientation and then, by the end of the 1970s, to a service orientation. My title refers to three elements in the transition period: the question of daily life; the timeframe; and the visual changes observable in private homes, which in retrospect signalled a kind of revolution in the social orientation. Those changes appeared not only in colours and designs but also in the forms and materials of household objects. My premise is that analysing interiors from a historical perspective can reveal valuable information about Finnish society and social attitudes, information that might easily escape attention otherwise. I have used the time-honoured method of collecting narratives. As far back as Aristotle, formulating narratives has been a means of gaining knowledge. By collecting and classifying narratives about the 1960s and 1970s, it is possible to gain new insight into these important decades. The archetypal 1960s narrative, involving student demonstrations and young people's efforts to improve society, is well known. Less well known is the narrative that relates the changes going on in daily life. Substantially the study focuses mainly on fabrics, porcelain ware and the use of plastics. Marimekko's style is especially important when following innovations in the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s. Porcelain production at the Arabia factory was another element that had a great influence on the look of Finnish homes and kitchens; and a further widespread phenomenon of the late 1960s and early 1970s was the use of plastics in many different forms. Further evidence was sought in Anttila department store mail catalogues, which displayed products that were marketed on a large scale, as well as in magazines such as Avotakka. The terminal point of the visual evolution is the real homes, as seen in the questionnaire "Homemade". I have used the 800 pages of the oral history text that respondents of the Finnish Literature Society have written about their first home in the 1960s. I also used archival material on actual homes in Helsinki from the archives of the Helsinki City Museum. The basic story is the elite narrative, which was produced by students in the 1960s. My main narrative from the same time is visual change in everyday life in the late 1960s and early 1970s. I have classified the main narrative of visual change into four subcategories: the narrative of national ideas, the narrative of a better standard of living, the narrative of objects in the culture of everyday life and the narrative of changing colour and form.