23 resultados para Weber, Max, 1864-1920


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Gentlemen, Lads and the Art of War The Construction of Citizen Soldier- and Professional Soldier Armies into the Miracle of the Winter War During the 1920s and 1930s The Miracle of the Winter War was not a myth - at least according to them, who were making that miracle to happen. This study is not just about the Armed Forces and society, but moreover a study about civil society inside the organization of armed forces. Conscription kept Finnish military organization (and is still keeping) very closely connected with civil society and therefore there is no need to locate the possible critical misunderstandings brought by two different identity-based approaches. The great performance of the Armed Forces during the Second World War was not made of superior art of war. It was not the high level of discipline either. Art of war is basically a (deep level) cultural level equation that has more to do with culturally absorbed schemes of meaning making than rational decision-making. Naturally attrition based approach to effect-making directed the organizational methods in attrition based organisational practices, where there were only minor possibilities to practice any manoeuvre-based organisational behaviour. The practice and method of leadership lent similarly to the attrition-based thinking, which directed the organisational cultural thoughts towards composition that confirmed antagonism between gentlemen and lads . This setting has been absorbed and learned through cultural socialisation and was therefore not a product of the military organisation itself. The Finnish Armed Forces included two different communities (gentlemen and lads) within the same organisation as there were both the official and the unofficial organisations presented. This caused problems as they both made meaning-making processes simultaneously. These organisations had their own overlapping and in most cases also contradictory social meanings. The unofficial organisation has been overshadowed by the vast number of studies concerning the official organisation. The main reason for this systematic neglect is based on the reality of the attitudes and living conditions of the micro-level organisation which produced (perhaps) too realistic and repulsive viewpoints that are presenting a picture of a national level identity process in a way that is separating it from the ideals made to verify the ethos of national values. Complaining, griping, grumbling and moaning are usually situated in a category of abnormal and unwanted behaviour. However, within the context of a citizen soldier army community this was more of a characteristic feature of that organisation (in Finland) and therefore it was crucially important to locate the context of that abnormal behaviour. According to this study, it was not a malicious act but moreover seriously formed efforts in trying to use common sense in the chaos citizen soldiers faced when they were uniformed and placed in an unfamiliar process of disciplinary measures and frictions and competition between different ranks. There is much evidence that reinforces the argument that what seemed to be the most unconventional behaviour was finally the most efficient in a sense of military performance.

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FAMILIES AND SCHOOLS AND THE POLITICS OF RESPONSIBILITIES - a genealogical study on family and school as carers and educators of the child population in modern society This study aims to uncover the politics behind such discourses in the media which have claimed the family to be totally responsible for children and which ignore the various responsibilities accorded to the state in matters concerning the child population. Using Max Weber s and Michael Mann s theorizing on the history of power relationships, feminist social history on patriarchy and Foucauldian power analytic concept of dispositif the study traces two competing child policies which have influenced the historical formation of modern generational order in Western societies. One of them is based on the interests of the hegemonic bourgeois elite and the other on the interests of the non-elite population, which were expressed during the phase of building the welfare state in Finland in the 1960 1980 s. The central strategies of the bourgeois child policy are 1) to construct the childhood years as a time for preparation and formation of the individual according to the interests of the elite, 2) to construct the family as the sole site of holistic care and responsibility of children in society, and 3) compulsory schooling of children of the non-elite population in state organized schools. To implement these strategies the elite uses strategically patriarchal cultural formations/dispositifs in modernized versions. The result has been the formation of a sexually divided and hierarchical order of care and education, where, on the one hand, there is the less important feminine care of children done by mothers at home and, on the other, the real education of the school, where children are made the object of authoritarian shaping and where the needs and the personal experiences of the child are ignored. The welfare order of care and education is based on the ethos of welfare society, where the state and the families are seen to share the responsibility for the child population. In this vein, families and schools are seen as partners who both have a caring attitude to children s welfare and learning. The study shows that discourses and terminology in the mainstream educational policy texts in Finland create a chaotic linguistic game which makes it difficult to have a rational discussion about the roles of family and school in the holistic care and education of children. This has opened the door to political discourses where familist interpretations of the question of responsibility are claimed to be based on law.

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The object of study in this thesis is Finnish skiing culture and Alpine skiing in particular from the point of view of ethnology. The objective is to clarify how, when, why and by what routes Alpine skiing found its way to Finland. What other phenomena did it bring forth? The objective is essentially linked to the diffusion of modern sports culture to Finland. The introduction of Alpine skiing to Finland took place at a time when skiing culture was changing: flat terrain skiing was abandoned in favour of cross-country skiing in the early decades of the 20th century, and new techniques and equipment made skiing a much more versatile sport. The time span of the study starts from the late 19th century and ends in the mid-20th century. The spatial focus is in Finland. People and communities formed through their actions are core elements in the study of sports and physical activity. Organizations tend to raise themselves into influential actors in the field of physical culture even if active individuals work in their background. Original archive documents and publications of sports organizations are central source material for this thesis, complemented by newspapers and sports magazines as well as photographs and films on early Alpine skiing in Finland. Ever since their beginning in the late 19th century skiing races in Finland had mostly taken place on flat terrain or sea ice. Skiing in broken cross-country terrain made its breakthrough in the 1920 s, at a time when modern skiing techniques were introduced in instruction manuals. In the late 1920 s the Finnish Women s Physical Education Association (SNLL) developed unconventional forms of pedagogical skiing instruction. They abandoned traditional Finnish flat terrain skiing and boldly looked for influences abroad, which caused friction between the leaders of the women s sports movement and the (male) leaders of the central skiing organization. SNLL was instrumental in launching winter tourism in Finnish Lapland in 1933. The Finnish Tourism Society, the State Railways and sports organizations worked in close co-operation to instigate a boom in tourism, which culminated in the inauguration of a tourist hotel at Pallastunturi hill in the winter of 1938. Following a Swedish model, fell-skiing was developed as a domestic counterpart to Alpine skiing as practiced in Central Europe. The first Finnish skiing resorts were built at sites of major cross-country skiing races. Inspired by the slope at Bad Grankulla health spa, the first slalom skiing races and fell-skiing, slalom enthusiasts began to look for purpose-built sites to practice turn technique. At first they would train in natural slopes but in the late 1930 s new slopes were cleared for slalom races and recreational skiing. The building of slopes and ski lifts and the emergence of organized slalom racing competitions gradually separated Alpine skiing from the old fell-skiing. After the Second World War fell-skiing was transformed into ski trekking on marked courses. At the same time Alpine skiing also parted ways with cross-country skiing to become a sport of its own. In the 1940 s and 1950 s Finnish Alpine skiing was almost exclusively a competitive sport. The specificity of Alpine skiing was enhanced by rapid development of equipment: the new skis, bindings and shoes could only be used going downhill.

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Soon after the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917, a three-year civil war broke out in Russia. As in many other civil wars, foreign powers intervened in the conflict. Britain played a leading role in this intervention and had a significant effect on the course of the war. Without this intervention on the White side, the superiority of numbers in manpower and weaponry of the Bolsheviks would have quickly overwhelmed their opponents. The aim of this dissertation is to explain the nature and role of the British intervention on the southern, and most decisive, front of the Civil War. The political decision making in London is studied as a background, but the focus of the dissertation is on the actual implementation of the British policy in Russia. The British military mission arrived in South Russia in late 1918, and started to provide General Denikin s White army with ample supplies. General Denikin would have not been able to build his army of more than 200,000 men or to make his operation against Moscow without the British matériel. The British mission also organized the training and equipping of the Russian troops with British weapons. This made the material aid much more effective. Many of the British instructors took part in fighting the Bolsheviks despite the orders of their government. The study is based on primary sources produced by British departments of state and members of the British mission and military units in South Russia. Primary sources from the Whites, including the personal collections of several key figures of the White movement and official records of the Armed Forces of South Russia are also used to give a balanced picture of the course of events. It is possible to draw some general conclusions from the White movement and reasons for their defeat from the study of the British intervention. In purely material terms the British aid placed Denikin s army in a far more favourable position than the Bolsheviks in 1919, but other military defects in the White army were numerous. The White commanders were unimaginative, their military thinking was obsolete, and they were incapable of organizing the logistics of their army. There were also fundamental defects in the morale of the White troops. In addition to all political mistakes of Denikin s movement and a general inability to adjust to the complex situation in Revolutionary Russia, the Whites suffered a clear military defeat. In South Russia the Whites were defeated not because of the lack of British aid, but rather in spite of it.

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In a max-min LP, the objective is to maximise ω subject to Ax ≤ 1, Cx ≥ ω1, and x ≥ 0 for nonnegative matrices A and C. We present a local algorithm (constant-time distributed algorithm) for approximating max-min LPs. The approximation ratio of our algorithm is the best possible for any local algorithm; there is a matching unconditional lower bound.

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In a max-min LP, the objective is to maximise ω subject to Ax ≤ 1, Cx ≥ ω1, and x ≥ 0. In a min-max LP, the objective is to minimise ρ subject to Ax ≤ ρ1, Cx ≥ 1, and x ≥ 0. The matrices A and C are nonnegative and sparse: each row ai of A has at most ΔI positive elements, and each row ck of C has at most ΔK positive elements. We study the approximability of max-min LPs and min-max LPs in a distributed setting; in particular, we focus on local algorithms (constant-time distributed algorithms). We show that for any ΔI ≥ 2, ΔK ≥ 2, and ε > 0 there exists a local algorithm that achieves the approximation ratio ΔI (1 − 1/ΔK) + ε. We also show that this result is the best possible: no local algorithm can achieve the approximation ratio ΔI (1 − 1/ΔK) for any ΔI ≥ 2 and ΔK ≥ 2.

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Tässä pro gradu -tutkimuksessa tutkin kätilötyön rakentumista Suomessa vuosina 1879 - 1920 Hämeenlinnan lääkäripiirin näkökulmasta. Analysoin vuoden 1879 kätilöohjesäännön tuomien muutosten sekä valtion organisaatioiden, lääkäreiden ja kunnallistason määräysten merkitystä kätilötoiminnalle ja kätilöille. Tutkimuksen ajallinen rajaus, 1879 - 1920, juontuu Keisarillisen Majesteetin vuonna 1879 antamasta kätilöohjesäännöstä, joka oli toimintaa ohjaavana lainsäädäntönä voimassa vuoteen 1920. Tutkin tässä työssä kätilötyötä kahdessa tasossa, mikrohistoriallisesti ja yleisellä tasolla. Tutkimusmenetelmänä sovellan kvalitatiivista ja kvantitatiivista menetelmää. Tutkimuksen teoreettisena kehyksenä toimii soveltavin osin Michel Foucault'n teoria biovallasta. Kätilöiden puutteeseen maalaiskunnissa oli pyritty vaikuttamaan vuoden 1859 kätilöohjesäännöllä. Käytännön muutoksia ei tapahtunut ja vuonna 1879 hyväksyttiin uusi kätilöohjesääntö. Uusi ohjesääntö oli valtion hallinnon ja lääkäreiden yhteistoiminnan tulos. Sen sanoma oli ohjaavaa, mutta ei pakottavaa. Lakiuudistuksella pyrittiin vaikuttamaan kuntiin ja kuntien kautta kansalaisten toimintaan. Haluttiin muokata ihmisten käyttäytymistapoja normalisoimalla kätilöhoitoinen synnytys. Kätilöohjesäännön voimaantulo ja vuodet 1879 - 1920 voidaan nähdä käännekohtana kätilötyössä. Tutkimusperiodin aikana kätilötyö alkoi saada itsenäisen ammattikunnan piirteitä selvemmin. Rahan rooli oli monessa suhteessa merkittävä, sillä elatuksen lisäksi raha vaikutti kätilön asemaan ja arvostukseen. Kunnan päättäjät olivat merkittävässä valtaapitävässä asemassa, koska heillä oli päätösvalta kätilön palkkaamisessa ja työn ehdoissa. Kunnissa, joissa kätilöä arvostettiin, maksettiin paremmin ja kuntalaiset tukeutuivat koulutettuun apuun enemmän. Tutkimusaikana kätilöiden olosuhteet kunnissa olivat haasteelliset eikä laki rajoittanut synnytyksen avustajaa, joten kätilöhoitoisissa synnytyksissä tapahtunut kasvu oli kätilöiden melko pyytettömän työn tulosta. Haluttiin muutakin kun käyttää valtaa.

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Tutkimus käsittelee kotitalouksien sisäistä resurssienjakoa suomalaisissa kotitalouksissa 1920-luvulla. Kiinnostuksen kohteena ovat investoinnit tyttö- ja poikalasten inhimilliseen pääomaan: erityisesti koulutukseen, mutta myös terveydenhoitoon ja ravintoon. Tutkimuksessa pyritään selvittämään, suosittiinko toista sukupuolta resurssienjaossa. Tutkimus lainaa menetelmiä ja kysymyksenasetteluja kehitystaloustieteestä, jossa kotitalouksien sisäinen toiminta on noussut keskeiseksi tutkimussuunnaksi ”kadonneiden naisten ongelman” myötä. Useat kehitystaloustieteelliset sekä talous- ja sosiaalihistorialliset tutkimukset ovat havainneet kotitalouksien syrjivän tyttöjä resurssienjaossa, minkä kumulatiiviset vaikutukset ovat johtaneet pahimmillaan naisten kuolleisuuden kasvuun. Useimmissa tapauksissa resurssienjaon on havaittu liittyvän lasten taloudelliseen arvostukseen. Vanhemmat panostavat niihin lapsiin, joiden tulevan ansiotason odotetaan olevan suurin. Tärkein tulevaan ansiotason vaikuttava tekijä ovat tavoitettavissa olevat työmarkkinat. Tutkimuksen keskeisimpänä aineistona hyödynnetään vuonna 1928 Suomessa suoritetun elinkustannustutkimuksen vuosikortteja. Aineisto sisältää 954 kotitalouden kulutustiedot 15 kaupungista ja 14 teollisuuspaikkakunnalta. Aineistoa analysoidaan ekonometrisin menetelmin regressioanalyysin avulla. Engelin lain mukaan kotitalouden tulojen noustessa ruokamenojen osuus kulutuksesta pienenee. Erilaisten Engel-mallin variaatioiden avulla voidaan tutkia epäsuorasti, miten kotitalouden demografinen rakenne vaikuttaa erilaisten hyödykkeiden kulutukseen. Tässä tutkimuksessa sovelletaan Engel-malliin perustuvaa Working-mallia, jonka avulla on mahdollista tarkastella, miten eri sukupuoli-ikäryhmien läsnäolo vaikuttaa koulutus- terveydenhoito- ja ruokamenoihin aineiston kotitalouksissa. Tämän lisäksi tutkimuksessa selvitetään, miten lapsiin kohdistuviin investointeihin vaikuttivat kotitalouksien sosiaaliluokka, asuinpaikan perifeerisyys, paikalliset työmarkkinat ja vanhempien inhimillisen pääoman määrä. Tutkimustulokset paljastavat, että lapsiin kohdistuvia investointeja aineisto kotitalouksissa selitti ensisijaisesti näiden reagoiminen taloudellisiin kannustimiin. Sosiaaliryhmien käyttäytymismalleissa oli kuitenkin eroja: työläisperheissä panostettiin tyttölasten koulutukseen, mutta toimenhaltijaperheissä suosittiin poikia. Tässä tutkimuksessa selityksiä epätasaiselle resurssienjaolle etsitään koulutuksen tuotosta. Vaikuttaa siltä, että vuosi oppikoulussa oli työläistytöille kannattavampaa kuin työläispojille, joille sosiaalisesti hyväksyttyjä ja riittävän hyvin palkattuja töitä löytyi myös ilman muodollista koulutusta. Toimenhaltijaperheissä kouluttautuminen oli puolestaan kannattavampaa pojille, sillä työelämän lasikatot ja sosiaaliset normit rajoittivat tyttöjen mahdollisuuksia työelämässä. Vaikka tutkimustulokset viittaavat siihen, että kotitaloudet pyrkivät tekemään taloudellisesti rationaalisia valintoja, vaikuttivat näihin valintoihin yhteiskunnan sukupuolihierarkiat. Koska tyttöjen ja poikien ”mahdolliset tulevaisuudet” olivat erilaiset, kannatti heidän inhimilliseen pääomaansa investoida eri tavoin. Tutkimuksen johtopäätökset antavat tukea useissa empiirisissä tutkimuksissa esiintyneelle havainnolle siitä, että lapsen asemaan perheen sisällä vaikuttaa hänen ansiomahdollisuutensa kodin ulkopuolella. Tutkimus pohtii myös koulutuksen vaikutusta laajemmassa rakennemuutoksessa. Koulutuksen voi perustellusti olettaa parantaneen työläistyttöjen sosiaalista liikkuvuutta työläispoikiin nähden. Koska naisten on todistettu siirtävän inhimillistä pääomaa lapsilleen miehiä tehokkaammin, oli tällä myös todennäköisesti ylisukupolvisia vaikutuksia suomalaiselle yhteiskunnalle. Kansainvälisessä kehitystaloustieteellisessä tutkimuksessa naisten koulutuksen on todettu liittyvän positiivisesti talouskasvuun ja koko yhteiskunnan sosiaaliseen hyvinvointiin. Vaikka tässä tutkimuksessa tutkitaan ensisijaisesti mikrotaloushistoriallisesti kotitalouksien käyttäytymistä, osallistuu se myös tähän koulutuksen laajempia vaikutuksia käsittelevään keskusteluun.