"Onko yhteisöllisyydellä väliä?" : identiteettiprosessi ja sosiaalinen pääoma epävarmuuden sietämisen merkityksellisinä elementteinä

”Does the community really count? – identity process and social capital as elements in surviving in insecurity and uncertainty” is a combination of five articles. The aim of this study is to answer the question: how or in which ways is it possible to find the role of identity process and social capital in surviving in insecurity and uncertainty? In the introduction part the concepts of community and social capital are examined. Then I will study the articles and try to find out what kinds of elements of identity process and social capital in them can be found in order to survive in the societal change. The study consists of the introduction part and the articles. The articles are: 1. “Is Becoming a Researcher Some Kind of Role-playing” - Roles of the Researcher in the Process of Forming the Identity 2. What Composes Collective Identity in the Polytechnic Community? 3. Opportunities to Succeed or Fear of Failure? -Entrepreneurship from the Youngsters` Point of View 4. Learning Risk-taking Competences 5. “Bricolage”, or Just Putting Things Together? The starting point for the study is the feeling of insecurity that surrounds a person living in the present society: you cannot be sure with whom you are going to co-operate tomorrow. In the “Good Old Days” the harmonious communities “protected” their members and worked strongly toward common aims. Nowadays, partly because of urbanisation, we are so busy that we only have time to take care of ourselves, or rather to say: just of myself. As Bauman (2001) puts it: people turn to communities in which they feel like home. They still long for communality. For Mead (1962) the group and the communality plays a big role: a person needs others to become the whole ”Self.” In acting with others a person can gain much more than working alone (Field 2003). But, as Day (2006) puts it, the reality of community as discovered by empirical reserach is a great deal messier than the abstract and idealized versions used by theorists. Keywords: uncertainty, insecurity, communality, identity process, social capital, significant groups, survival.

Trust, participation and health among ageing people : A cross-sectional cohort study of men and women born in 1926-30, 1936-40, and 1946-50 in the Lahti region, southern Finland

The purpose of the present study was to explore the associations between good self-rated health and economic and social factors in different regions among ageing people in the Päijät-Häme region in southern Finland. The data of this study were collected in 2002 as part of the research and development project Ikihyvä 2002 2012 (Good Ageing in Lahti region GOAL project). The baseline data set consisted of 2,815 participants born in 1926 30, 1936 40, and 1946 50. The response rate was 66 %. According to the previous studies, trust in other people and social participation as the main aspects of social capital are associated with self-rated health. In addition, socioeconomic position (SEP) and self-rated health are associated, but all SEP indicators do not have identical associations with health. However, there is a lack of knowledge of the health associations and regional differences with these factors, especially among ageing people. Regarding these questions, the present study gives new information. According to the results of this study, self-perceived adequacy of income was significantly associated with good self-rated health, especially in the urban areas. Similar associations were found in the rural areas, though education was also considered an important factor. Adequacy of income was an even stronger predictor of good health than the actual income. Women had better self-rated health than men only in the urban areas. The youngest respondents had quite equally better self-rated health than the others. Social participation and access to help when needed were associated with good self-rated health, especially in the urban area and the sparsely populated rural areas. The result was comparable in the rural population centres. The correlation of trust with self-rated health was significant in the urban area. High social capital was associated with good self-rated health in the urban area. The association was quite similar in the other areas, though it was statistically insignificant. High social capital consisted of co-existent high social participation and high trust. The association of traditionalism (low participation and high trust) with self-rated health was also substantial in the urban area. The associations of self-rated health with low social capital (low participation and low trust) and the miniaturisation of community (high participation and low trust) were less significant. From the forms of single participation, going to art exhibitions, theatre, movies, and concerts among women, and studying and self-development among men were positively related to self-rated health. Unexpectedly, among women, active participation in religious events and voluntary work was negatively associated with self-rated health. This may indicate a coping method with ill-health. As a whole, only minor variations in self-rated health were found between the areas. However, the significance of the factors associated with self-rated health varied according to the areas. Economic factors, especially self-perceived adequacy of income was strongly associated with good self-rated health. Also when adjusting for economic and several other background factors social factors (particularly high social capital, social participation, and access to help when needed) were associated with self-rated health. Thus, economic and social factors have a significant relation with the health of the ageing, and improving these factors may have favourable effects on health among ageing people.

Pelon ja toivon välissä : Pätkätyöläisen urakerronta

This study analyzes the forming of the occupational identity of the well-educated fixed-term employees. Fixed-term employment contracts amongst the well-educated labour force are exceptionally common in Finland as compared to other European countries. Two groups of modern fixed-term employees are distinguished. The first comprises well-educated women employed in the public sector whose fixed-term employment often consists of successive periods as temporary substitutes. The other group comprises well-educated, upper white-collar men aged over 40, whose fixed-term employment careers often consist of jobs of project nature or posts that are filled for a fixed period only. Method of the study For the empirical data I interviewed 35 persons (26 women and 9 men) in 33 interviews, one of which was conducted by e-mail and one was a group interview. All the interviews were electronically recorded and coded. All the interviewees have two things in common: fixed-term employment and formal high education. Thirteen (13) of them are researchers, four nurses, four midwives, four journalists, and ten project experts. I used the snowball method to get in touch the interviewees. The first interviewees were those who were recommended by the trade unions and by my personal acquaintances. These interviewees, in turn, recommended other potential interviewees. In addition, announcements on the internet pages of the trade unions were used to reach other interviewees. In analysing process I read the research material several times to find the turning points in the narrative the interviewees told. I also searched for the most meaningful stories told and the meaning the interviewees gave to these stories and to the whole narrative. In addition to that I paid attention to co-production of the narrative with the interviewees and analyzed the narrative as performance to be able to search for the preferred identities the interviewees perform. (Riesman 2001, 698-701). I do not pay much attention to the question of truth of a narrative in the sense of its correspondence with facts; rather I think a working life narrative has two tasks: On the one hand one has to tell the facts and on the other hand, he/she has to describe the meaning of these facts to herself/himself. To emphasize the double nature of the narrative about one’s working life I analyzed the empirical data both by categorizing it according to the cultural models of storytelling (heroic story, comedy, irony and tragedy) and by studying the themes most of the interviewees talked about. Ethics of the study I chose to use narrative within qualitative interviews on the grounds that in my opinion is more ethical and more empowering than the more traditional structured interview methods. During the research process I carefully followed the ethical rules of a qualitative research. The purpose of the interviews and the research was told to the interviewees by giving them a written description of the study. Oral permission to use the interview in this research was obtained from the interviewees. The names and places, which are mentioned in the study, are changed to conceal the actual identity of the interviewees. I shared the analysis with the interviewees by sending each of them the first analysis of their personal interview. This way I asked them to make sure that the identity was hidden well enough and hoped to give interviewees a chance to look at their narratives, to instigate new actions and sustain the present one (Smith 2001, 721). Also I hoped to enjoy a new possibility of joint authorship. Main results As a result of the study I introduce six models of telling a story. The four typical western cultural models that guide the telling are: heroic story, comedy, tragedy and satirical story (Hänninen 1999). In addition to these models I found two ways of telling a career filled with fixed-term employments that differ significantly from traditional career story telling. However, the story models in which the interviewees pour their experience locates the fixed term employers work career in an imagined life trajectory and reveals the meaning they give to it. I analyze the many sided heroic story that Liisa tells as an example of the strength of the fear of failing or losing the job the fixed term employee feels. By this structure it is also possible to show that success is felt to be entirely a matter of chance. Tragedy, the failure in one’s trial to get something, is a model I introduce with the help of Vilppu’s story. This narrative gets its meaning both from the sorrow of the failure in the past and the rise of something new the teller has found. Aino tells her story as a comedy. By introducing her narrative, I suggest that the purpose of the comedy, a stronger social consensus, gets deeper and darker shade by fixed-term employment: one who works as a fixed term employee has to take his/her place in his/her work community by him/herself without the support the community gives to those in permanent position. By studying the satiric model Rauno uses, I argue that using irony both turns the power structures to a carnival and builds free space to the teller of the story and to the listener. Irony also helps in building a consensus, mutual understanding, between the teller and the listener and it shows the distance the teller tells to exist between him and others. Irony, however, demands some kind of success in one’s occupational career but also at least a minor disappointment in the progress of it. Helmi tells her story merely as a detective story. By introducing Helmi’s narrative, I argue that this story model strengthens the trust in fairness of the society the teller and the listener share. The analysis also emphasizes the central position of identity work, which is caused by fixed-term employment. Most of the interviewees talked about getting along in working life. I introduced Sari’s narrative as an example of this. In both of these latter narratives one’s personal character and habits are lifted as permanent parts of the actual professional expertise, which in turn varies according to different situations. By introducing these models, I reveal that the fixed-term employees have different strategies to cope with their job situations and these strategies vary according to their personal motives and situations and the actual purpose of the interview. However, I argue that they feel the space between their hopes and fears narrow and unsecure. In the research report I also introduce pieces of the stories – themes – that the interviewees use to build these survival strategies. They use their personal curriculum vitae or portfolio, their position in work community and their work morals to build their professional identity. Professional identity is flexible and varies in time and place, but even then it offers a tool to fix one’s identity work into something. It offers a viewpoint to society and a tool to measure one’s position in surrounding social nets. As one result of the study I analyze the position the fixed-term employees share on the edge of their job communities. I summarize the hopes and fears the interviewees have concerning employers, trade unions, educational institutions and the whole society. In their opinion, the solidarity between people has been weakened by the short-sighted power of the economy. The impact the fixed-term employment has on one’s professional identity and social capital is a many-sided and versatile process. Fixed-term employment both strengthens and weakens the professional identity, social capital and the building of trust. Fixed-term employment also affects one’s day-to-day life by excluding her/him from the norm and by one’s difficulty in making long-term plans (Jokinen 2005). Regardless of the nature of the job contract, the workers themselves are experts in making the best of their sometimes less than satisfying work life and they also build their professional identity by using creatively their education, work experiences and interpersonal relations. However, a long career of short fixed-term employments may seriously change the perception of employee about his/her role. He/she may start concentrating only in coping in his/her unsatisfactory situation and leaves the active improvement of the lousy working conditions to other people. Keywords: narrative, fixed-tem employment, occupational identity, work, story model, social capital, career  

The Rocky Road of Social Sustainability : The Impact of Integrated Biodiversity Conservation and Development on the Local Realities in Ranomafana National Park, Madagascar

The objective of this study is to examine the social impacts of the integrated conservation and development project (ICDP) aimed at biodiversity conservation and local socio-economic development in the Ranomafana National Park (RNP), Madagascar. Furthermore, the study explores social sustainability and justice of the ICDP in Ranomafana. This ethnographically informed impact study uses of various field methods. The research material used consists of observation, interviews (key-person and focus group), school children's writings, official statistics and project documents. Fieldwork was conducted in three phases in 2001, 2002 and 2004 in twelve villages around the park, as well as in neighbouring areas of Ranomafana. However, four of those twelve villages were chosen for closer study. This study consists of five independent articles and a concluding chapter. Social impacts were studied through reproductive health indicators as well as a life security approach. Equity and distribution of benefits and drawbacks of ICDP were analysed and the actors related to the conservation in Ranomafana were identified. The children and adolescents' environmental views were also examined. The reproductive health indicators studied showed a poor state of reproductive health in the park area. Moreover, the existing social capital in the villages seemed to be fragmented due to economic difficulties that were partly caused by the conservation regulations. The ICDP in Ranomafana did not pay attention to the heterogeneity of the affected communities even though the local beneficiaries of the ICDP varied according to their ethnicity, living place, wealth, social position and gender. In addition, various conservation actors (local people in various groups, local authorities, tourist business owners, conservation NGOs and scientists) contest their interests over the forest, conservation and its related activities. This study corroborates the same type of evidence and conclusions discussed in other similar cases elsewhere: so called social conservation programmes still cannot meet the needs of the people living near the protected areas; on the contrary, they even have a reverse impact on the people's lives. A fundamental misunderstood assumption in the conservation process in Ranomafana was to consider the local people as a problem for biodiversity conservation. Major reasons for the failure of the ICDP in Ranomafana include a lack of local institutions that would have been able to communicate as equals with the conservation NGOs as well as to transfer the tradition of the authoritarian governance in conservation management together with the over-appreciation of scientific biodiversity, and lack of will to understand the local people's rights to use the forest for their livelihoods.

Homeowners' Associations in Russia after the 2005 Housing Reform

The thesis examines homeowners associations as a part of the large-scale housing reform, implemented in Russia since 2005. The reform transferred housing management from the public sector to the private sector and to the citizens responsibility. The reform is a continuation to the privatisation of the housing stock that was started in Russia in the beginning of the 1990s, aiming to build a market-oriented housing sector in the country. The reform makes a fundamental change to the Soviet system, in which ownership along with management and maintenance of housing were monopolised by the state. Homeowners are now responsible for the management of the common areas in privatised houses, which is often realised by establishing a homeowners association. Homeowners associations are examined by using the so-called common-pool resource regime approach, with the main question being the ways in which taking care of common property collectively succeeds in practice. The study is based on interview data of St. Petersburg s homeowners associations. Using the common-pool resource theory the study demonstrates why implementation of the housing reform has not succeeded as expected. Certain elements that characterise a successful common-pool resource regime do not fulfill sufficiently in St. Petersburg s homeowners associations. Firstly, free-riding, that is, withdrawal from the association s joint decision-making and not making the housing payments is common, as effective sanctions to prevent it are missing in the legislation. That is, eviction or expelling a non-paying member from the association is not possible. Secondly, ownership of the land plot and common areas of the house, such as basements and attics, are often disputed between the associations and authorities. In the Soviet era, these common areas were public property along with the apartments, but in privatised houses they should, according to the legislation, belong to the associations property. Thirdly, solution of disputes between the associations and authorities and within the associations is difficult, as the court system tends to be bureaucratic and inefficient. In addition to the common-pool resource approach, the study also examines how social capital contributes to the associations effectiveness and democratic governance. The study finds that although homeowners associations have increased cooperation and tightened social relations between neighbours, social capital has not been able to prevent free-riding. The study shows that unlike it is often claimed, the so-called Soviet mentality , that is, residents passiveness and unwillingness to participate, is not the most important obstacle to the reform. Instead, the reform is impeded most of all by imperfect institutional arrangements and local authorities that prevent the associations from working as independent, self-governing associations.

Verkostot väylänä työelämään

Tutkimuksessa selvitetään Helsingin yliopiston valtiotieteellisestä tiedekunnasta valmistuneiden siirtymistä työelämään. Tarkoituksena on avata siirtymään liittyvää problematiikkaa ja tutkia työelämässä esiintyviä sosiaalisia verkostoja. Tutkimusta varten haastateltiin yhdeksää henkilöä, jotka olivat valmistuneet noin viisi vuotta aikaisemmin valtiotieteiden maistereiksi. Haastatteluissa kartoitettiin heidän kokemuksiaan työelämään siirtymisestä. Haastatteluiden lisäksi aineistona toimii haastateltavien työhistorioista muodostetut työjanat ja taustatiedot. Tutkimusmenetelmänä on käytetty kvalitatiivista sisällönanalyysiä. Laadullinen aineisto antaa uudenlaisen lähestymistavan työelämään siirtymisen tutkimiseen. Tutkimuksen lähtökohdat rakentuvat korkeakoulutettujen työelämään siirtymistä käsitelleiden tutkimusten, työelämän tutkimuksen ja verkostoanalyysin varaan. Tutkimustulokset muodostuvat kolmesta analyysiluvusta, joissa käsitellään opiskeluaikaa ja yliopistokoulutusta, valtiotieteilijöiden kohtaamaa muuttuvaa työelämää sekä verkostoitunutta työelämää. Tulosten mukaan osa haastateltavista oli opiskeluaikanaan huolestunut työllistymisestään, mutta toisen osan haastateltavista huomattiin suhtautuvan siirtymään ’töiden shoppailuna’. ’Töiden shoppailussa’ työmarkkinoilla toimitaan kuluttajina ja etsitään sopivaa työpaikkaa omien mieltymysten mukaan (Johnson 1978; Hämäläinen 2002). Toiseksi vastavalmistuneet valtiotieteiden maisterit haluavat tutkimuksen mukaan jatkuvasti kouluttautua uudelleen ja kehittyä työelämässä (ks. Julkunen 2008a; Julkunen 2008b; Sennett 2002). Haastattelupuheessa tasapainoilee pelko jämähtämisestä ja määräaikaisista työsuhteista. Aineistosta löytyi kolme erilaista työjanaa, professionaalinen, intressikohtainen ja generalistinen, joiden kautta on mahdollista ymmärtää valtiotieteilijöiden erilaisia urapolkuja. Kolmanneksi tutkimus kartoittaa, miten sosiaalisia verkostoja hyödynnetään siirtymässä koulutuksesta työelämään (ks. Jokisaari & Nurmi 2004). Kaikki haastateltavista olivat saaneet useamman kuin yhden työpaikan sosiaalisten verkostjensa kautta. Sosiaaliset verkostot toimivat työnhakukanavana, koska niiden sisällä liikkuu tietoa. Toisin sanoen voidaan puhua sosiaalisten verkostojen tuomista informaatiohyödyistä (Lin 2001), jotka ilmenevät heikkoina siteinä (Granovetter 1983; 1995) ja rakenteellisina aukkoina (Burt 2001). Tutkimuksessa esiintyvät työllistymiseen vaikuttaneet sosiaaliset suhteet perustuvat suurimmalta osin sosiaalisen pääoman (Bourdieu 2007 [1986]) kautta syntyneeseen luottamukseen (Coleman 1988; Mäkelä & Ruokonen 2005). Tutkimustulosten mukaan päämäärätietoiseen verkostoitumiseen suhtaudutaan varauksella, mutta ystäville tietoja avoimista työmahdollisuuksista välitetään mielellään. Erottelu syntyy kilpailusuhteiden ja ystävyyssuhteiden välille, joissa sosiaalista pääomaa käytetään eri tavoilla (ks. Johanson & Uusikylä 2005). Tutkimuksen mukaan valtiotieteiden maisterit työllistyvät sellaisten sosiaalisten verkostojen kautta, joissa liikkuu tietoa ja joihin liittyy luottamus.

Liminal Belonging: West African male asylum seekers’ narratives of the asylum experience whilst in Finland

The dominant discourses on the issue of asylum have placed it on a uniquely higher level of scrutiny as a politically very sensitive area for social research. Today, member states within the EU have implemented stricter policies to control new arrivals, whilst instituting statutory procedures to manage the existing asylum claims. In 2010, the number of applicants for asylum in Finland totalled 5988, out of which 1784 were given positive decisions. This thesis endeavour to highlight asylum seekers in the discourses about them by adding their voices to the discussions of them in contemporary Finland. Studies, which has concentrated on asylum seekers in Finland, uses the living conditions within asylum reception centres to assess the impacts of structural barriers on asylum seekers’ efforts to deal with the asylum process. By highlighting the impacts of the entire asylum process, which I believe starts from the country of origin; I focus on examining narratives of dealing with the experience of liminality whilst waiting for asylum, and then explore areas of possible participation within informal social networks for West African asylum seekers in Finland. The overall aim is to place the current research within the broader sociological discussion of ‘belonging’ for asylum seekers who are yet to be recognized as refugees, and who exist in a state of limbo. Methodologically, oral interviews, self-written autobiographical narratives, and ethnographic field work are qualitatively combined as data in this thesis for an empirical study of West African male asylum seekers in Finland. Narrative analysis is employed to analyze the data for this thesis. The ethnographic research data for the study began in May 2009 and ended in August of 2010. Altogether, ten interviews and four self-written narratives were collected as data. In total seven hours of audio recording were made, along eleven pages of hand-written autobiographical narratives. Field observation notes are employed in the study to provide contexts to the active interactional processes of interpretation throughout the analysis. Findings from the study suggest that within the experience of liminality, which surrounds the entire asylum process, participations within informal social networks are found to be important to the process of re-making place and the sense of belonging. My study shows that this is necessary to countering the experience of boredom, stress and social isolation, which permeate all aspects of life for West African asylum seekers, whilst they wait for asylum decisions in Finland.

Elewård på finska och pä svenska. En fallstudie som granskar samband mellan socialt kap språk och ungdomars välmående

Forskningen utreder skillnader mellan finsk- och svenskspråkiga skolor i en kommun i Nylands län utgående från elevvårdens synvinkel. Syftet är att kartlägga situationen i en kommun och synliggöra de skillnader och faktorer som påverkar det sociala kapitalets mängd i skolorna. Skillnaderna betraktas utgående från det sociala kapitalets inverkan på gemenskapen och från ekologisk synvinkel. Sambandet mellan det sociala stöd och den sociala kontroll som särskilt de vuxna i skolan producerar, har betydelse för skolelevers välmående. För att kunna bilda en socialt stödande och socialt kontrollerande atmosfär krävs det funktionella förändringar i skolan. Särskilt de vuxna i skolan skulle behöva mera gemenskap. Elevvårdsarbetet och skolarbetet riktar sig främst mot elever i dag, fastän de vuxna skulle behöva stärka sina sociala förhållanden. Bris i uppkomsten av socialt stöd och kontroll beror främst på problem i samarbete och kommunikation mellan de vuxna i skolan. Skolkuratorerna är de enda professionella inom skolan som i sitt arbete tar hela skolan som gemenskap i beaktande. Denna forskning är en abduktiv kvalitativ fallstudie som är tili sin karaktär beskrivande. Som data används intervjuer av elevvärdspersonalen i kommunen och enkäten Hälsa i skolan av Institutet för hälsa och välfärd från år 2008. Viktigaste källan för forskningen är Noora Ellone (2008) forskning "Kasvuyhteisö nuoren turvana".

Sijaissotilasjärjestelmä ja väenotot : Taloudellis-sosiaalinen tutkimus sijaissotilaiden käytöstä Ala-Satakunnan väenotoissa vuosina 1631-1648

The dissertation describes the conscription of Finnish soldiers into the Swedish army during the Thirty Years' War. The work concentrates on so-called substitute soldiers, who were hired for conscription by wealthier peasants, who thus avoided the draft. The substitutes were the largest group recruited by the Swedish army in Sweden. The substitutes made up approximately 25-80% of the total number of soldiers. They recieved a significant sum of money from the peasants: about 50-250 Swedish copper dalers, corresponding to the price of a little peasant house. The practice of using substitutes was managed by the local village council. The recruits were normally from the landless population. However, when there was an urgent need of men, even the yeoman had to leave their homes for the distant garrisons across the Baltic. Conscription and its devastating effect on agricultural production also reduced the flow of state revenues. One of the tasks of the dissertation is the correlation between the custom of using substitutes and the abandonment of farmsteds (= in to the first place, to the non-ability to pay taxes). In areas where there were no substitutes available the peasants had to join the army themselves, which normally led to abandonment and financial ruin because agricultural production was based on physical labour. This led to rise of large farms at the cost of smaller ones. Hence, the system of substitutes was a factor that transformed the mode of settlement.

Kesken jäänyt vallankumous : Sosiaalinen mobilisaatio Helsingissä vuoden 1905 suurlakosta Viaporin kapinaan 1906

Tutkielmassani käsittelen vuoden 1905 suurlakon ja Viaporin kapinan välistä aikaa vallankumouksellisena prosessina Helsingissä. Miten vallankumouksellisuus ilmeni suurlakon aikana ja sen jälkeen Helsingissä? Miten tavalliset työläiset reagoivat tapahtumiin? Metodisina apuvälineinä minulla on ensinnäkin Charles Tillyn määritelmä vallankumoukselliselle tapahtumalle. Keskeistä tälle määritelmälle on, että vallankumouksellista tapahtumaa pitää tutkia sen lähtökohdista käsin eikä lopputuloksen kautta. Vallankumouksellinen tilanne syntyy, kun olemassa oleva hallitus saa kilpailijan ja vastaavasti se on ohi, kun jompikumpi jää jäljelle. Toiseksi apunani ovat olleet sosiaalihistorialliset tutkimukset Venäjän vallankumouksesta, joissa aihetta käsitellään ruohonjuuritason näkökulmasta. Tällöin polttopisteessä ovat lakot ja niiden aikana esitetyt vaatimukset. Oleellista näistä tutkimuksissa on, ettei työläisiä nähdä tahdottomana massana, joka sokeasti tottelee poliittisten johtajien käskyjä. Työläisillä oli omia, lähinnä ammatillisia vaatimuksia, jotka ilmensivät toisaalta huolta jokapäiväisestä toimeentulosta ja toisaalta ne heijastivat demokraattisten vaatimusten ulottamista laajemmalle kuin pelkästään valtiolliselle tasolle eli myös työpaikoille. Suurlakon aikana Helsingin työläiset johtivat käytännössä kaupungin julkista elämää. Vallan keskuksena toimi kansallislakon keskuskomitea. Näkyvintä valtaa käytti kansalliskaarti. Kaarti toimi vahvana poliisivoimana koko lakon ajan. Se pyrki kontrolloimaan liikennettä ja kauppaa sekä sensuroimaan muiden tahojen tiedonvälitystä. Raittiusväellä oli myös oma kaartin osasto, jonka avulla kaupunkiin säädettiin kieltolaki sekä kiellettiin prostituutio. Keskeinen elementti lakon onnistumisen kannalta oli niinikään avustustoiminnan järjestäminen lakon vuoksi hätään joutuneille. Näin turvattiin, ettei lakkorintamassa sattuisi ennenaikaisia repeämiä. Suurlakon jälkeen työväestö aktivoitui ennennäkemättömällä tavalla. Lakkojen lukumäärä ja niihin osallistuneiden työläisten määrä moninkertaistui. SDP:n virallinen tavoite eli poliittinen kansalaisuus ei riittänyt työläisjoukoille, vaan lakoilla pyrittiin saamaan aikaiseksi demokraattinen yhteiskunta laajemminkin. Lyhytikäisiksi jääneet työehtosopimukset eivät tilannetta korjanneet. Demokratia saatiin poliittisella tsolla, mutta ruohonjuurinäkökulmasta uudistukset jäivät kesken ja tyytymättömyys säilyi. Tässä mielessä työväenliike ei integroitunut yhteiskuntaan. Suomessa vallankumouksellinen toivo asetettiin Venäjän vallankumoustapahtumien etenemiseen. Suomalaisen radikalismin päätepisteenä voi pitää epäonnistunuttta Viaporin kapinaa, johon osallistui myös suomalaisia punakaartilaisia. Punakaartilaiset olivat suurelta osin nuoria, muualta Helsinkiin muuttaneita ja vähän järjestökokemusta omaavia henkilöitä. Nuoruus, juurettomuus ja liittyminen työväentyöväenpuolueeseen tai sen järjestöihin vasta perustamisvaiheen 1899-1903 jälkeen olivatkin leimallisia piirteitä radikaalien aineksien keskuudessa. Tutkielmassani osoitan, että ruohonjuuritason tutkimuksella voidaan kuvaa vuosisadan alun työläisistä, heidän toiveistaan ja haluistaan täsmentää. Vuosien 1905 ja 1906 poliittisessa murroksessa oli myös ammatillisilla seikoilla tärkeä sija työväestön pyrkimyksissä. Ne osoittavat omalta osaltaan työläisten vallankumouksellisia ja radikaaleja vaatimuksia. Punakaartilaisradikalismi oli läheistä sukua tälle toiminnalle. Avainsanat: Sosiaalihistoria, vallankumous, työväenliike, suurlakko 1905, Viaporin kapina.

Tiede ja tutkijan sosiaalinen vastuu : Joseph Ben-Davidin, Roger Sperryn ja Knut Erik Tranøyn käsitykset tieteestä ja tutkijan sosiaalisesta vastuusta

Science and the Scientist's Social Responsibility. Joseph Ben-David's, Roger Sperry's and Knut Erik Tranøy's Views of Science and the Scientist's Social Responsibility The aim of the study was to investigate, whether or not there is any connection between Jewish sociologist Joseph Ben-David's, American neuroscientist Roger Sperry's and Norwegian philosopher Knut Erik Tranøy's views of science and views of the scientist's social responsibility. The sources of information were their writings concerning this topic. Ben-David has a classical view of science. He thinks that the Mertonian norms of scientific activity, first written in 1942, are still valid in modern science. With the help of these norms Ben-David defends the view that science is morally neutral. Ben-David thinks that a scientist has a limited social responsibility. A scientist only reports on the new results, but he is not responsible for applying the results. In any case Ben-David's ideas are no longer valid. Sperry has a scientistic view of science. According to Sperry, science is the source of moral norms and also the best guide for moral action. The methods of natural sciences "show" how to solve moral problems. A scientist's personal views of science and social responsibility are not important. However Sperry's view is very problematic on the ethical side. Tranøy stresses the scientist's social responsibility. A scientist has common norms with the society from with he or she comes. This is why a scientist has the right, and also the responsibility, to discuss social and ethical questions between science and society. Tranøy's view has some ethical and practical problems, but it is valid in principle. Finally, Ben-David's, Sperry's and Tranøy's views of both science and the scientist's social responsibility have a connection: the view of science corresponds to the certain view of scientist's social responsibility. The result of this study is: Ben-David's, Sperry's and Tranøy's view of science have an ethical starting point as its fundamental presupposition, which include certain views of scientific knowledge, good and the scientist's ethical responsibilities. The connection between Ben-David's, Sperry's and Tranøy's views of science and views of the scientist's social responsibility means that their views of epistemology, meta-ethics and the scientist's ethical responsibilities have a connection to their views of the scientist's social responsibility. The results of this study can help the scientific community to organize the social responsibility of a scientist and deepen the conversation concerning the scientist's social responsibility.

Suomalaisten yritysten vapaaehtoinen sosiaalinen vastuu : Sidosryhmäviitekehys yritysten ja ulkoisten sidosryhmien edustajien näkemyksissä

Corporate social responsibility (CSR) is no longer only an issue of companies but a concern shared by e.g. the European Union, the International Labour Organization, labour market organizations and many others. This thesis examines what kind of voluntary corporate social responsibility exceeding the minimum level set in the legislation can be expected from the Finnish companies. The research was based on the interviews of some representatives of Finnish companies and of external stakeholders. Earlier Finnish empirical research on the topic has solely analysed the stakeholder thinking and the ethics of the views of the company representatives. The views of the external stakeholders brought ht up a much more versatile perspective on the voluntary corporate social responsibility of the companies. That is the particular surplus value of this research. This research, founded on stakeholder thinking, evaluated what kind of starting points and ideas on responsibility the views of the representatives of the companies and the external stakeholders were based on the voluntary social responsibility. Furthermore, the research also investigated how their views about the corporate social responsibility indicated the benefits achieved on the cooperative actions with different partners - for example companies, communities and public administration. To fulfil the aims of the research, the following questions were used as part tasks in mapping the basic foundations and starting points expressed by the representatives of the companies and the external stakeholders: 1) How do laws, directions concerning social responsibility of companies, and opinions and demands of the stakeholders guide and affect the voluntary corporate social responsibility? 2) How can companies assume voluntary corporate social responsibility in addition to their core functions and without compromising their profitability, and how does, for example, the tightening competition affect the possibility of taking responsibility? 3) What kind of ethic and moral foundations is the corporate social responsibility based on? 4) What kind of roles can companies have in securing and promoting the well-being of citizens in Finland and on the global market as one subsystem of the society? The views on the voluntary corporate social responsibility of nine big companies, one medium-sized company and one small company, all considered responsible pioneer companies, were studied with surveys and half-structured theme interviews between 2003 and 2004. The research proceeded as a theory-bounded study. The empirical material and the previous stakeholder thinking theories (Takala 2000b, Vehkaperä 2003) guided the thesis and worked abductively in interplay with each other during the research process. (Tuomi, Sarajärvi 2002.) The aims and the methods of the research and the themes of the interviews were defined on the basis of that information. The aims of the research were surveyed qualitatively with the strategy of a multiple case study. Representatives from nine big peer companies and nine external stakeholders were interviewed with half-structured themes between 2004 and 2005. The external stakeholders and the peer companies were chosen with the "thinking" of theoretical replication by Yin, according to which the views of the representatives of those groups would differ from those of the pioneer companies and also from those of each others. The multiple case study supports analysing the internal cohesion of the views of different groups and comparing their differences, and it supports theoretical evaluation and theory-building as well. (Yin 2003.) Another reason for choosing the external stakeholders was their known cooperation with companies. The spoken argumentations of the company and stakeholder representatives on the voluntary social responsibility of the companies were analysed and interpreted in the first place with an analytic discourse analysis, and the argumentations were classified allusively into the stakeholder discourses in three of the part tasks. In the discourse analysis, argumentations of the speech is seen to be intervowen with cultural meanings. (Jokinen, Juhila 1999.) The views of the representatives of the pioneer companies and the external stakeholders were more stakeholder-orientated than the views of the representatives of the peer companies. For the most part, the voluntary corporate social responsibility was seemingly targeted on single, small cooperation projects of the companies and external stakeholders. The pioneer companies had more of those projects, and they were participating in the projects more actively than the peer companies were. The significant result in this research was the notion that, in particular, the representatives of the pioneer companies and external stakeholders did not consider employing and paying taxes to be enough of reciprocal corporate social responsibility. However, they still wanted to preserve the Finnish welfare model, and the interviewees did not wish major changes in the present legislation or the social agreements. According to this study, the voluntary corporate social responsibility is motivated by ethical utilitarianism which varied from very narrow to very wide in relation to benefits achieved by companies and stakeholders (Velasquez 2002, Lagerspetz 2004). Compared with the peer companies, more of the representatives of the pioneer companies and of external stakeholders estimated that companies in their decision-making and operations considered not only the advantages and the benefits of the owners and other internal stakeholders, but also those of the external stakeholders and of the whole society. However, all interviewees expressed more or less strongly that the economic responsibility guides the voluntary responsible actions of the companies in the first place. This kind of utilitarian foundation of behaviour appeared from this research was named as business-orientated company moral. This thesis also presents a new voluntary corporate social responsibility model with four variables on the stakeholder discourses and their distinctive characteristics. The utilitarian motivation of a company s behaviour on their operations has been criticized on the grounds that the end justifies the means. It has also been stated that it is impossible to evaluate the benefits of the utilitarian type of actions to the individuals and the society. It is expected however that companies for their part promote the material and immaterial well-being of the individuals on the global, national and local markets. The expectations are so strong that if companies do not take into account the ethical and moral values, they can possibly suffer significant financial losses. All stakeholders, especially consumers, can with their own choices promote the responsible behaviour of the companies. Key words: voluntary corporate social responsibility, external stakeholders, corporate citizenship, ethics and morality, utilitarianism, stakeholder discourses, welfare society, globalisation

"Ni sit mä tajusin, et on muitakin kuin minä" : Suomenuskoisten sosiaalinen identiteetti

Työ on uskontososiologian tutkimusalaan lukeutuva laadullinen tapaustutkimus, joka perustuu argumentatiiviseen haastatteluaineistoon ja sosiaalisen identiteetin teoriaan. Tutkimuskysymys liittyy sosiaalisen identiteettiin. Miten suomenuskoinen hahmottaa oman yhteisönsä ja sen jäsenyyden? Mitä merkitystä yhteisöllä on suomenuskoiselle? Tutkimuksen aihepiiri on suomalainen uuspakanuus ja sen eräs suuntaus, suomenusko. Työn eräänä tarkoituksena on määritellä suomenuskon käsitettä ja sijoittaa suomenuskoinen suuntaus nykyajan suomalaisen uuspakanuuden kentälle. Hypoteesin mukaan suomenusko on uusiin uskontoihin lukeutuva uuspakanallinen liike. Se kuuluu ásatrún tavoin etnopakanuuden luokkaan, eli kansallisista muinaisperinteistä inspiraationsa ammentaviin suuntauksiin. Suomenuskolle on omalaatuista esikristillisten suomalaisten uskontoperinteiden sekä suomalaisen kansanuskon korostaminen lähteinä. Suomenuskon muut ominaispiirteet vastaavat tyypillistä uuspakanuutta: Luonnon ja perinteiden kunnioitus sekä epädogmaattisuus ja tasavertaisuus ovat keskeisiä arvoja. Työ tehtiin puolistrukturoituna haastattelututkimuksena. Seitsemää suomenuskoista haastateltiin laadullisen asennetutkimuksen menetelmän mukaisesti. Menetelmä on uudehko ja kiinnostava. Se perustuu argumentatiivisen haastatteluaineiston tuottamiseen väittämäkorttien avulla. Analyysissä haastatteluaineistosta paikannetaan asenteita, eli subjektin ilmaisemaa jonkin kohteen arvottamista. Asenteista pyrittiin löytämään ulkoryhmiin kohdistuvia vertailuja ja retorisia erottautumisia. Työn teoreettisena tukirankana on Henri Tajfelin ja John C. Turnerin kehittämä sosiaalisen identiteetin teoria. Teorian mukaan sosiaalista identiteettiä on mahdollista tutkia ainoastaan sosiaalisten ryhmien keskinäisen vertailun asetelmassa. Omia sisäryhmiä vertaillaan aina ulkoryhmiin siten, että oma ryhmä näyttäytyy voittajana. Tämä takaa yksilölle myönteisen omanarvontunnon. Karmela Liebkindin mukaan vähemmistöryhmät vertailevat itseään valtakulttuurin enemmistöryhmiin. Heikki Pesosen ja Elina Huhdan mukaan vähemmistöuskonnot pyrkivät oikeuttamaan omaa uskontoaan tekemällä omalle ryhmälle suotuisia vertailuja. Tutkimuksessa havaittiin haastateltavien tekemiä retorisia erottautumisia ulkoryhmistä sekä heidän ilmaisemiaan asenteita, jotka liittyvät suomenuskoisten sisäryhmän dynamiikkaan. Tulosten perusteella haastatellut suomenuskoiset erottautuvat ryhmänä muusta uuspakanuudesta ja vielä selvemmin New Agesta ja satanismista, jotka eivät ole uuspakanuutta. Lisäksi haastateltavat korostavat eroa dogmaattisiin valtauskontoihin, varsinkin evankelis-luterilaisen valtionkirkon enemmistöryhmään. Suomenuskoisten yhteisöön liittymisen prosessin havaittiin muistuttavan sosiaalista itsekategorisointia yhteisön jäsenyydessä ratkaiseva tekijä on oman jäsenyyden tajuaminen itse. Teorian mukaan tämä johtaa sosiaalisen identiteetin muodostumiseen ja siten ryhmäkäyttäytymiseen. Haastateltavilla oli havaittavissa vahva sosiaalinen identiteetti. Uuspakanuuden kenttään suhteutettuna se oli poikkeuksellisen yhtenäinen. Lisäksi selvisi, että suomenuskoiset suunnittelevat uskonnolliseksi yhdyskunnaksi rekisteröitymistä.

"Ei kansa elä vain leivästä" : Suomen Taideyhdistys ja kuvataiteen kannattajakunnan muotoutuminen Helsingissä 1846-1865.

Tutkielma käsittelee kuvataideyleisön muotoutumista Suomen Taideyhdistyksen piirissä 1800-luvun puolivälissä sosiaalihistoriallisesta näkökulmasta. Tärkein lähdemateriaali on Suomen Taideyhdistyksen arkisto, jonka avulla tarkastellaan laajemmin yhdistyksen ideaa, sen jäsenyyttä, maanlaajuista jäsenkartuntaa ja johtokunnan taiteen kannattajiin suuntaamaa missiota toiminnan alkuvuosikymmeninä. Yhdistyksen helsinkiläinen jäsenistö vuosina 1846−1865 on luokiteltu kymmeneen luokkaan jäsenluettelossa annettujen nimikkeiden perusteella. Lähdeaineiston ja sen pohjalta tehdyn luokittelun avulla analysoidaan pääkaupungin jäsenkuntaa ja sen suhdetta koko maan jäsenistöön. Jäsenkunnasta nostetaan esille myös joitakin kiinnostavia yksilöitä. Tutkielman pääasiallinen teoreettinen viitekehys on Sosiologi Everett Rogersin malli innovaatioiden diffuusiosta. Taiteen kannattaminen uutena ideana vertautuu tutkielmassa uuteen keksintöön ja sen leviämiseen. Tutkielmassa osoitetaan, että kuvataiteen saadessa 1800-luvun kuluessa uudenlaisia merkityksiä myös taiteen yleisö määrittyi uudelleen. Vuonna 1846 perustetulla Suomen Taideyhdistyksellä oli tässä ratkaiseva ja aktiivinen rooli. Taiteen kannattajakunnan ydin oli Helsingissä, jossa vaikutti yhdistyksen lähinnä korkeista virkamiehistä ja professoreista koostunut johtokunta. Taideyhdistyksen toiminnan vakiintuessa taiteen kannattamisen idea levisi ja sitä levitettiin yhä useammille paikkakunnille sekä laajempiin kansankerroksiin. Yhdistyksen jäsenkuntaan liittyi lähinnä säätyläistöä, mutta taidenäyttelytoiminta tavoitti myös alempia yhteiskuntaluokkia. Taideyhdistyksen helsinkiläisessä jäsenkunnassa virkamiehistön rooli oli suuri. Alkuvaiheessa liittyneet yhteiskunnalliselta statukseltaan korkeat henkilöt saivat hallitsijan vakuuttumaan toiminnan luotettavuudesta. Taiteen kannattajakunta muodostui kuitenkin kasvavassa määrin alemmasta virkamiehistöstä ja elinkeinojen harjoittajista. Merkittävä osuus oli myös Keisarillisen Aleksanterinyliopiston opettajilla ja siellä tutkinnon suorittaneilla. Tärkein taiteen pääkaupunkilaista kannattajakuntaa yhdistänyt sosiaalinen viitekehys olikin yliopisto. Sen antama koulutus, sivistys ja henkinen pääoma olivat taustalla suurimmalla osalla yhdistykseen Helsingissä liittyneistä. He kuuluivat pääsääntöisesti aktivoituvaan sivistyneistöön, joka syntyi sääty-yhteiskunnan vanhojen rakenteiden hämärtyessä ja yliopistotutkintojen saadessa yhä suurempaa yhteiskunnallista merkitystä.