Sika- ja siipikarjatalouden rakennemuutoskorvaus C-tukialueella

Sika- ja siipikarjatilojen määrä Suomessa on vähentynyt koko EU-jäsenyyden ajan tuotannon keskittyessä yhä suurempiin yksiköihin. Tuotantomäärät ovat kasvaneet, mutta viljelijöiden tulotaso on alentunut, joten maatalouden ulkopuoliset ammatit houkuttelevat luopumaan eläinten pidosta tai maataloudesta kokonaan. Sika- ja siipikarjatalouden rakennemuutoksen taloudellisena kannustimena otettiin vuonna 2009 käyttöön sika- ja siipikarjatalouden rakennemuutoskorvaus, jota maksetaan kompensaationa sika- ja siipikarjataloudesta luopuville viljelijöille. Tämän työn tarkastelukohteena on rakennemuutoskorvaus C-tukialueella, jossa yksinään on lähes yhtä paljon sika- ja siipikarjatiloja kuin A- ja B-alueilla yhteensä. Tutkimuksen tavoitteena on selvittää, millaiset sika- ja siipikarjatilat sekä koko C-alueella että C-alueen eri osissa ovat hakeneet rakennemuutoskorvausta ja miten tilat ovat alueellisesti sijoittuneet. Maatalouden rakennepolitiikalla pyritään vaikuttamaan maatalouden yhteiskunnalliseen rakenteeseen. Rakennepoliittisilla toimilla pyritään vähentämään viljelijöiden ja tilojen määrää, jolloin maataloustulo jakaantuu pienemmälle viljelijämäärälle taaten heille suuremmat tulot. Maatalouden rakennemuutosta tapahtuu, kun maatalouden rakenteessa tapahtuu tietyllä aikavälillä muutos. Rakennemuutoksessa ja -kehityksessä on alueellisia eroja. Aluetaloustiede pyrkii selittämään, mistä alueelliset erot johtuvat ja miksi alueet erilaistuvat. Suomessa eri maakunnilla on eroja ja omia alueellisia ominaispiirteitään, joilla on suuri merkitys alueen työllisyyteen ja väestön sijoittumiseen alueella. Eri maakunnissa työllisyystilanne on vaihteleva, mutta joka maakunnassa on kuitenkin työvoimapulaa useissa sellaisissa ammateissa, joihin eläinten tai tilan pidon lopettavien viljelijöiden olisi mahdollista työllistyä. Sika- ja siipikarjatalouden rakennemuutoskorvaus on kansallinen kotieläintuki, jota maksetaan tilakohtaisen viitemäärän perusteella tiloille, jotka ovat juuri lopettaneet sika- ja siipikarjatuotantonsa tai aikovat sen lopettaa. Korvausta on voitu maksaa tukiehdot täyttävälle tuenhakijalle joko vuosina 2009–2010 tai vuosina 2010–2011 ja sen maksimimäärä on tilaa kohden enintään 20000 euroa vuodessa. Kahden korvausvuoden jälkeen tilan viitemäärä lakkautetaan ja sen jälkeen tilalle ei enää makseta sika- ja siipikarjatalouden tukia. Tilan on kuitenkin edelleen mahdollista jatkaa sika- ja siipikarjatuotantoaan markkinaehtoisena. Tutkimuksen aineisto on 389 tilan tiedot sisältävä Tiken raportti tukityypin 1612 (sika- ja siipikarjatalouden rakennemuutoskorvaus, pohjoinen) tukihakutiedoista vuodelta 2010. Tutkimusote oli kvantitatiivinen ja koska havaintoaineisto kattaa kaikki C-alueen korvauksenhakijat, tehtiin tutkimus kokonaistutkimuksena. Tutkimustulosten mukaan 63 % korvausta hakeneista tiloista sijoittuu C1-alueelle ja 54 % Etelä-Pohjanmaalle ja Pohjanmaalle. Kuntatasolla eniten rakennemuutoskorvaustiloja oli Närpiössä. C-alueella tuenhakijat olivat iältään 20–71-vuotiaita. Hakijoista 62 % harjoitti päätuotantosuuntanaan viljanviljelyä ja peltoalaa kaikilla hakijoilla oli hallinnassaan lähes 16000 ha. Rakennemuutoskorvausta maksettiin C-alueella yhteensä yli 2,3 miljoonaa euroa. Kun rakennemuutoskorvauksen viitemäärät kahden korvausvuoden jälkeen lakkautetaan, poistuu tuo-tannosta yli 9600 ey. Sekä C-alueella että kaikki ELY-keskukset huomioiden oli korvauksenhakijoita kaikkia ikäluokkia tarkasteltaessa eniten 50–59-vuotiaissa. Eniten hakijoita oli viitemääräluokassa 10,01–20 ey ja viljelyalaluokassa 25,01–40 ha, vähiten luokissa 40,01–50 ey ja 50,01 ey tai enemmän sekä 150,01 ha tai enemmän. Yleisin maksuluokka oli 3000,01–4500 euroa, harvinaisin 15000,01–20000 euroa. Rakennemuutoskorvauksella saavutettuja hyötyjä ja kustannuksia on toistaiseksi vaikea määritellä, koska vuoden 2011 maksatus on vielä kesken.

Suomen maatalouden tuottamat kasvihuonekaasujen päästöt eri politiikkaskenaarioissa

Climate change is the single biggest environmental problem in the world at the moment. Although the effects are still not fully understood and there is considerable amount of uncertainty, many na-tions have decided to mitigate the change. On the societal level, a planner who tries to find an eco-nomically optimal solution to an environmental pollution problem seeks to reduce pollution from the sources where reductions are most cost-effective. This study aims to find out how effective the instruments of the agricultural policy are in the case of climate change mitigation in Finland. The theoretical base of this study is the neoclassical economic theory that is based on the assumption of a rational economic agent who maximizes his own utility. This theoretical base has been widened towards the direction clearly essential to the matter: the theory of environmental eco-nomics. Deeply relevant to this problem and central in the theory of environmental economics are the concepts of externalities and public goods. What are also relevant are the problems of global pollution and non-point-source pollution. Econometric modelling was the method that was applied to this study. The Finnish part of the AGMEMOD-model, covering the whole EU, was used for the estimation of the development of pollution. This model is a seemingly recursive, partially dynamic partial-equilibrium model that was constructed to predict the development of Finnish agricultural production of the most important products. For the study, I personally updated the model and also widened its scope in some relevant matters. Also, I devised a table that can calculate the emissions of greenhouse gases according to the rules set by the IPCC. With the model I investigated five alternative scenarios in comparison to the base-line scenario of Agenda 2000 agricultural policy. The alternative scenarios were: 1) the CAP reform of 2003, 2) free trade on agricultural commodities, 3) technological change, 4) banning the cultivation of organic soils and 5) the combination of the last three scenarios as the maximal achievement in reduction. The maximal achievement in the alternative scenario 5 was 1/3 of the level achieved on the base-line scenario. CAP reform caused only a minor reduction when com-pared to the base-line scenario. Instead, the free trade scenario and the scenario of technological change alone caused a significant reduction. The biggest single reduction was achieved by banning the cultivation of organic land. However, this was also the most questionable scenario to be real-ized, the reasons for this are further elaborated in the paper. The maximal reduction that can be achieved in the Finnish agricultural sector is about 11 % of the emission reduction that is needed to comply with the Kyoto protocol.

Ohjailusta kilpailuun : Suomen hallitusten kasvu- ja rakennepolitiikka vuosina 1962-1999

The study examines the contents, changes and the causes of changes of the growth and structural policy exercised by Finnish governments in 1962-1999. The policy is evaluated e.g. on the basis of government programmes. It is divided in the study into three phases: the phase of guided economy 1962-77, the transition period 1977-91 and the phase of competitive economy 1991-99. The opening of the economy has been the central factor influencing the contents of the growth and structural policy. When dividing the policy into ten sectors, it was found that the sectors losing weight during the study period are agricultural and forest policies and welfare policy and the sectors increasing weight are labour policy and environmental policy. Though impacts of the changes in the general line of the growth and structural policy could be seen in sector policies, the breaks in sector policies did not necessarily coincide with the breaks in the general line of the policy. In the study, in particular, the impacts of the factors affecting growth and structural policy thinking (political changes, foreign influences and changes in economics) are evaluated. The policy was influenced more by the prevailing ideological climate ("the spirit of time") than by political changes. Until the 1970s foreign influences mainly came from those individual Western European countries, where the role of government planning was important and where the economic development was favourable. Some impacts from socialist countries could be seen at the end of the 1960s and at the beginning of the 1970s. Since the 1980s the role of international organisations became emphasised. Also the impacts of the changes in economics could be seen in the changes in the general line of the growth and structural policy.

Kevätviljojen siemenviljelyn jatkuvuus K- maatalouden sopimusviljelytiloilla 2010

Maisterin tutkielman tavoitteena oli kartoittaa kevätviljojen siemenviljelyn edellytyksiä Kmaatalouden sopimusviljelytiloilla. Erityisesti oltiin kiinnostuneita kansallisen siementuotantotuen poistumisen vaikutuksesta viljeltävien lajikkeiden lukumäärään ja viljelyaloihin. Tutkielman teoriaosassa tarkasteltiin viljojen siemenviljelyä, sen erityispiirteitä Suomessa ja siihen liittyvää lainsäädäntöä, asetuksia ja maatalouspolitiikkaa. Siemenviljelyä tarkasteltiin paitsi huoltovarmuuden näkökulmasta myös viljelyn taloudellisuuden näkökulmasta. Lisäksi esitettiin sertifioidun ja tilan oman siemenen käyttöön ja laajuuteen vaikuttavia tekijöitä ja siemenen sertifiointiprosessi. Tutkimuksen aineisto perustui maaliskuussa 2010 tehtyyn lomakekyselyyn, joka lähetettiin 119 K-maatalouden sopimussiemenviljelijälle. Kyselyyn vastasi 71 viljelijää, jolloin vastausprosentiksi muodostui 60. Tutkimusmenetelminä aineiston analysoinnissa käytettiin frekvenssijakaumia, keskiarvotestejä ja Kruskall-Wallisin testiä. Tutkimustulosten mukaan kansallisen siementuotannon tuen poistuminen vuoden 2011 alussa ei näyttänyt vaikuttavan siemenviljelyn jatkuvuuteen tai jatkohalukkuuteen. Siementuotannon tukea pidettiin varsin alhaisena, joten sen vaikutus viljelyyn osoittautui vähäiseksi. Huomattavasti enemmän siemenviljelyyn näytti vaikuttavan yleinen maatalouden ja etenkin viljanviljelyn alhainen kannattavuus. Siemenviljelijät katsoivat, etteivät esimerkiksi siementuotannon tuki tai tuen poistuminen korvaa riittävästi tuotannosta aiheutunutta lisätyötä. Toisaalta harva siemenviljelijä aikoi lopettaa tuotannon, vaikka pitivät viljanviljelyä huonosti kannattavana. Tällaiseen näkemykseen saattoi olla syynä se, että viljelijöillä oli siemententuotantoon soveltuva kalusto, ammattitaito ja rutiini tuotantoon. Tutkimukseen osallistuneet viljelijät katsoivat lisäksi, että oma maatila soveltui erittäin hyvin siemententuotantoon. Suurimpana uhkana siementuotannolle kyselyyn vastanneet viljelijät pitivät hukkakauraa omilla tai naapureidensa pelloilla.

Numeroiden harhaa vai toteutuksen työkaluja? -indikaattorien käyttö maatalouden ympäristöpoliittisessa suunnittelussa

This research focused on indicators with the aim of recognizing the main characters of this particular tool. The planning and use of Finnish sustainability indicators for natural resource management was examined as well as the experiences about the international sets of agri-environmental indicators were described. In both cases, the actual utilization of information was found to be quite minimal. Indicators have succeeded in bringing more of environmental information into the processes of decision making, but information has not been directly shifted into the actions of natural resource management. The concept of technical use of indicators was presented and considered as a possible explanation for the failures of information transfer and communication. Traditionally indicators have been used in order to recognize and describe the performance of certain system; to provide clear operative message for the actors. In policy planning, the situation is essentially different. We may lack both the jointly shared and accepted objectives of development as well the reliable and representative methods for measuring the issue under attention. Therefore, the technical orientation of using indicators may cause several problems at the policy forum. The study identified the risks of 1) reduced informative basis of decision-making, 2) narrowed approach of interpreting the data, 3) the focus on the issues that already are best documented and provides the most representative data series, and 4) the risks of losing the systemic viewpoints while focusing on measurable details of the system. Technical use of indicators may also result the excessive focus on information while being detached from the actions. With sustainability indicators, the major emphasis was indeed paid with producing information while the reality of agricultural practices was left mostly unaffected. Therefore, the essential process of social learning, where actions and producing of relevant information are alternating was neither realized. This study underlines the complexity of information transfer, mutual communication and the learning of new practices. Besides the information and measurable number people also need personal experiences and interesting stories, which make them to understand the meaning of information in their own lives. Particularly important this is for thechildren, who are studying for to be the future decision-makers of food system; in production as well as the in consumption of food. Numbers will be useful tools of management as soon there exists the awareness of the direction, where to strive for.

Locus Bonus : The Relationship of the Roman Villa to its Environment in the Vicinity of Rome

The aim of this study is to examine the relationship of the Roman villa to its environment. The villa was an important feature of the countryside intended both for agricultural production and for leisure. Manuals of Roman agriculture give instructions on how to select a location for an estate. The ideal location was a moderate slope facing east or south in a healthy area and good neighborhood, near good water resources and fertile soils. A road or a navigable river or the sea was needed for transportation of produce. A market for selling the produce, a town or a village, should have been nearby. The research area is the surroundings of the city of Rome, a key area for the development of the villa. The materials used consist of archaeological settlement sites, literary and epigraphical evidence as well as environmental data. The sites include all settlement sites from the 7th century BC to 5th century AD to examine changes in the tradition of site selection. Geographical Information Systems were used to analyze the data. Six aspects of location were examined: geology, soils, water resources, terrain, visibility/viewability and relationship to roads and habitation centers. Geology was important for finding building materials and the large villas from the 2nd century BC onwards are close to sources of building stones. Fertile soils were sought even in the period of the densest settlement. The area is rich in water, both rainfall and groundwater, and finding a water supply was fairly easy. A certain kind of terrain was sought over very long periods: a small spur or ridge shoulder facing preferably south with an open area in front of the site. The most popular villa resorts are located on the slopes visible from almost the entire Roman region. A visible villa served the social and political aspirations of the owner, whereas being in the villa created a sense of privacy. The area has a very dense road network ensuring good connectivity from almost anywhere in the region. The best visibility/viewability, dense settlement and most burials by roads coincide, creating a good neighborhood. The locations featuring the most qualities cover nearly a quarter of the area and more than half of the settlement sites are located in them. The ideal location was based on centuries of practical experience and rationalized by the literary tradition.

Kummimaatilatoiminta opettajien ja maatilojen sekä innovaatiotutkimuksen näkökulmista

Tutkimuksen tarkoituksena on selvittää Finfood - Suomen Ruokatieto ry:n alullepanemassa kummimaatilatoiminnassa mukana olleiden opettajien ja maatilojen käsityksiä ja kokemuksia toiminnasta sekä tarkastella kummimaatilatoimintaa innovaationa. Kummimaatilatoiminta liittyy Finfoodin internetissä julkaisemaan oppimateriaaliin suomalaisen ruoan tiestä. Kummimaatilatoiminnan tavoitteena on, että mahdollisimman monella peruskoululuokalla olisi oma kummimaatila, missä luokka voisi vierailla vuosittain, joka säilyisi luokalla mahdollisimman pitkään ja jonka kanssa luokka suunnittelee oman yhteistyönsä. Kummimaatilatoiminnan avulla pyritään omakohtaisten kokemusten ja elämysten kautta lisäämään nuorten tietoa maaseudun elämästä. Tutkimuksen tausta -osassa tarkastellaan koulun ja yhteiskunnan muiden tahojen yhteistyötä, esitellään tutkimuksia koulun ja teollisuusyritysten yhteistyöstä sekä koulun ja maatalouden yhteistyöhön liittyvää materiaalia. Lisäksi tarkastellaan innovaatiota ja innovaation diffuusiota. Koska kummimaatilatoiminta on uusi toimintamuoto, jossa toisena osapuolena on koulu, tutkimuksessa käsitellään myös kasvatuksen muutoksia (educational change). Tutkimusta käsitellään tapaus- ja toimintatutkimuksena. Tutkimusaineistona ovat kummimaatilatoiminnan alkuvaiheessa syksyllä 1997 mukaan lähteneiden seitsemän opettajan ja kuuden maatilan teemahaastattelut. Tutkimuksessa on haastateltu myös Finfoodin edustajaa. Aineisto kerättiin kevään ja syksyn 1998 aikana. Innovaatiotarkastelun pohjana ovat lisäksi tutkijan omat kokemukset toiminnasta sekä erilaiset kokoukset ja keskustelut. Opettajien ja maatilojen kokemuksista selvitettiin heidän toiminnan aloittamiseen johtaneita motiivejaan, toiminnalle asettamiaan tavoitteita, toiminnassa havaitsemiaan ongelmia sekä käsityksiä toiminnan onnistumisen avaintekijöistä ja toiminnan kehittämisestä. Suuria näkemyseroja ei opettajien ja maatilojen kokemusten välillä ollut. Osapuolet pitivät maaseutua tärkeänä ja halusivat tarjota lapsille kokemuksia elämästä siellä. Yhteisenä tavoitteena opettajilla ja maatiloilla oli, että toiminta olisi mahdollisimman laajaa, ei pelkkiä retkipäiviä maalle. Opettajat korostivat myös vierailujen toiminnallisuutta. Maatilat toivoivat voivansa lisätä toiminnalla myös omaa tietämystään ja ammattitaitoaan. Käytännön asiat kuten matkat olivat eniten ongelmia aiheuttaneita asioita. Muina mahdollisina ongelmina mainittiin asenteet ja tiedotus. Toiminnan avaintekijöinä pidettiin suunnittelua, molempien osapuolten motivoituneisuutta ja aktiivisuutta, vierailujen toiminnallisuutta, tiedottamista ja toiminnan laajentamista. Kehittämisideat liittyivät toiminnan laajentamiseen ja monipuolistamiseen. Tämän tutkimuksen perusteella kummimaatilatoimintaa on ryhdytty kehittämään niin, että koko koululla yksittäisen luokan sijaan on yhteinen kummimaatila. Innovaatiotarkastelu osoitti, että kummimaatilatoiminnan kehittäminen ja levittäminen on pitkä prosessi, jossa koordinaattorin rooli on tärkeä. Osallistujien sitoutuminen toimintaan, osallistujien tukeminen sekä heidän kokemustensa hyödyntäminen on myös tärkeää. Tärkeimmät lähteet tutkimuksen taustateorian kannalta olivat Rogersin, Fullanin ja Hargreavesin teokset. Avainsanat: kummimaatilatoiminta, innovaatio, innovaation diffuusio, muutos Keywords: godfarms, farm visits, innovation, diffusion of innovation, educational change

Agroforestry systems for sustainable livelihoods and improved land management in the East Usambara Mountains, Tanzania

Forest destruction for agriculture continues to be a major threat to the rich biological diversity in the East Usambara Mountains in the north-eastern corner of Tanzania. The highest ratio of endemic plant and animal species found on 100 km2 anywhere in the world is depending on the remaining natural forests. Forests are vitally important for the local population in many different ways, and nationally they are an important source of water and hydroelectricity. The soils, of low fertility and mostly acidic Ferrasols, mainly have the nutrients in the topsoil. After clear-cutting, the soils soon become poor when the topsoil is eroded. High-value cardamom is nowadays unsustainably cultivated in the natural forests of the East Usambaras. The general aim was to study the possibilities to develop new profitable and sustainable agroforestry systems for the benefit of the local people that could contribute to relieving the pressure on the remaining natural forests in the East Usambara Mountains. Results from a spice crop agroforestry trial, established in cooperation with a local farmer, showed a clear advantage of intercropping cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum) and black pepper (Piper nigrum) with trees, especially with Grevillea robusta. The nitrogen fixing tree species Gliricidia sepium also improved the nitrogen and organic matter content of the soil over levels found in the natural forest. With improved agroforestry methods for spice production the households generated as much as13 times the net income obtained with traditional forest cultivation practices. There are thus sustainable and profitable ways to cultivate spices as cash crops in well-managed homegardens. However, the farmers need stable markets, access to credit and comprehensive extension services. The soil fertility depletion should be reversed with organic manure application and an enabling policy environment for the smallholder-farming sector. Strong farmers organisations and equal rights to resources and decision-making are needed. Organic spices have an increasing demand, and their export would be profitable for these farmers. What is, however, most needed for a change is a political will of a government that understands the importance of agricultural and forestry development for poverty reduction.

Landscape-scale soil erosion modelling and ecological restoration for a mountainous watershed in Sichuan, China

Sichuanissa Tiibetin ylängön metsäkato on pysähtynyt mutta eroosio-ongelmat jatkuvat Viikin tropiikki-instituutin tutkija Ping ZHOU kartoitti trooppisen metsänhoidon alaan kuuluvassa väitöskirjatyössään maaperän eroosioalttiutta ja sen riippuvuutta metsäkasvillisuudesta Jangtsen tärkeää sivuhaaraa Min-jokea ympäröivällä n. 7400 neliökilometrin suuruisella valuma-alueella Sichuanin Aba-piirikunnassa. Aineistonaan hän käytti muun muassa satelliittikartoitustietoja ja mittaustuloksia yli 600 maastokoealalta. Tutkimuksen nimi suomeksi on "Maaperän eroosion mallinnus ja vuoristoisen valuma-alueen ekologinen ennallistaminen Sichuanissa Kiinassa". Aikaisempien tutkimusten perusteella oli tiedossa että metsien häviäminen tällä alueella pysähtyi jo 1980-luvun alussa. Sen jälkeen on metsien pinta-ala hitaasti kasvanut etupäässä sen vuoksi, että teollinen puunhakkuu luonnonmetsissä kiellettiin kokonaan v. 1998 ja 25 astetta jyrkemmillä rinteillä myös maatalouden harjoittaminen on saatu lopetetuksi viljelijöille tarjottujen taloudellisten houkuttimien avulla. Täten myös pelto- ja laidunmaata on voitu ennallistaa metsäksi. Ping Zhou pystyi jakamaan 5700 metrin korkeuteen saakka kohoavan vuoristoalueen eroosioalttiudeltaan erilaisiin vyöhykkeisiin rinteen kaltevuuden, sademäärän, kasvipeitteen ja maalajin perusteella. Noin 15 prosentilla tutkitun valuma-alueen pinta-alasta, lähinnä Min-joen pääuomaa ympäröivillä jyrkillä rinteillä, eroosioriski oli suuri tai erittäin suuri. Eri tyyppisellä kasvillisuudella oli hyvin erilainen vaikutus eroosioalttiuteen, ja myös alueen sijainti vuoriston eri korkeuksilla vaikutti eroosioon. Säästyneet lähes luonnontilaiset havumetsät, joita on etupäässä vuoriston ylimmissä osissa 2600-4000 metrin korkeudella, edistävät tehokkaasti metsän luontaista uudistumista ja levittäytymistä vaurioituneille alueille. Säilyneiden metsien puulajikoostumus antoi tutkimuksessa mahdollisuuden ennustaa metsien tulevaa kehitystä koko tutkitulla valuma-alueella sen eri korkeusvyöhykkeissä ja eri maaperätyypeillä. Ennallistamisen kannalta ongelmallisimpia olivat alueet joilta metsäpeite oli lähinnä puiden teollisen hakkuun vuoksi kokonaan hävinnyt ja joilla maaperä yleisesti oli eroosion pahoin kuluttama. Näillä alueilla ei ole tehty juuri mitään uudistamis- tai ennallistamistoimenpiteitä. Niillä metsien ennallistaminen vaatii myös puiden tai pensaiden istuttamista. Tähän sopivia ovat erityisesti ilmakehän typpeä sitovat lajit, joista alueella kasvaa luontaisena mm. sama tyrnilaji joka esiintyy myös Suomessa. Työssä tutkittiin yli kahdeksankymmenen paikallisen luontaisen puulajin (joista peräti noin kolmannes on havupuulajeja) ekologisia ominaisuuksia ja soveltuvuutta metsien ennallistamiseen. Avainasemassa työn onnistumisen kannalta ovat nyt paikalliset asukkaat, joiden maankäytön muutokset ovat jo selvästi edistänet luonnonmetsän ennalleen palautumista. Suomen Akatemia rahoitti vuosina 2004-2006 VITRI:n tutkimushanketta, josta Ping Zhou'n väitöskirjatyö muodosti keskeisen osan. Kenttätyö Sichuanissa avasi mahdollisuuden hedelmälliseen monitieteiseen yhteistyöhön ja tutkijavaihtoon Kiinan tiedeakatemian alaisen Chengdun biologiainstituutin (CIB) kanssa; tämä tieteellinen kanssakäyminen jatkuu edelleen.

Ode to a Skylark: Agricultural intensification and farmland birds in the Baltic region

Intensification of agricultural land-use has been was shown to be the key reason behind declines in wildlife species associated with farmland. Accession to the European Union is regarded as a potential threat to the farmland biota of its new member states. In my thesis I looked at scenarios of agricultural development across the Baltic states of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, and the ways they are seen to affect farmed environments as a habitat of farmland bird species. I looked at the effects of major farmed habitats across the region, and assessed the role of spatial organisation of farmed habitats. I also evaluated the direction and magnitude of changes in bird communities following progression of farmland land-use from a relatively less intensive to the most intensive type within each country. Different aspects of the structural complexity of farmland were critical for supporting farmland birds. There was a clear indication that the more intensively farmed areas across the region provided habitat for fewer bird species and individuals, and intensification of field management was reflected in a tangible decrease in farmland bird abundance. The second part of the thesis, based on interviews in Estonia and Finland, is devoted to farmers interest in and knowledge of farmland wildlife, their understanding of the concept of biodiversity, and awareness of causes behind species declines. I examined the relationship between farmers interest and their willingness to undertake practices favouring farmland wildlife. Many farmers viewed biodiversity from a narrow perspective. In Finland farmers expressed higher concern about the decline in common farmland species than in Estonia. In both countries farmers rated intensification of agriculture as the major driving force behind declines. The expressed interest in wildlife positively correlated with willingness to undertake wildlife-friendly measures. Only farmers with agri-environment contracts targeted specifically at biodiversity were more knowledgeable about practical on-farm activities favouring wildlife, and were more willing to employ them that the rest. The results suggest that, by contributing to simplification of the farmland structure, homogenisation of crops, and increase in intensity of field use, EU agricultural policies will have a detrimental effect on farmland bird populations in Eastern Europe. Farmers are on the whole positive to the idea of supporting wildlife on their farms, and are concerned about declines, but they require payments to offset their income loss and extra work. I propose ways of further improving and better targeting of the agri-environment schemes in the region. I argue that with a foreseen tripling of cereal yields across the region, the EU Council s target of halting biodiversity decline in the EU by 2010 may not be realistic unless considerable improvements are made in conservation safeguards within the EU agricultural policy for the region.

Microclimate and gas emissions in dairy buildings : Instrumentation, theory and measurements

The aim of this thesis was to develop measurement techniques and systems for measuring air quality and to provide information about air quality conditions and the amount of gaseous emissions from semi-insulated and uninsulated dairy buildings in Finland and Estonia. Specialization and intensification in livestock farming, such as in dairy production, is usually accompanied by an increase in concentrated environmental emissions. In addition to high moisture, the presence of dust and corrosive gases, and widely varying gas concentrations in dairy buildings, Finland and Estonia experience winter temperatures reaching below -40 ºC and summer temperatures above +30 ºC. The adaptation of new technologies for long-term air quality monitoring and measurement remains relatively uncommon in dairy buildings because the construction and maintenance of accurate monitoring systems for long-term use are too expensive for the average dairy farmer to afford. Though the documentation of accurate air quality measurement systems intended mainly for research purposes have been made in the past, standardised methods and the documentation of affordable systems and simple methods for performing air quality and emissions measurements in dairy buildings are unavailable. In this study, we built three measurement systems: 1) a Stationary system with integrated affordable sensors for on-site measurements, 2) a Wireless system with affordable sensors for off-site measurements, and 3) a Mobile system consisting of expensive and accurate sensors for measuring air quality. In addition to assessing existing methods, we developed simplified methods for measuring ventilation and emission rates in dairy buildings. The three measurement systems were successfully used to measure air quality in uninsulated, semi-insulated, and fully-insulated dairy buildings between the years 2005 and 2007. When carefully calibrated, the affordable sensors in the systems gave reasonably accurate readings. The spatial air quality survey showed high variation in microclimate conditions in the dairy buildings measured. The average indoor air concentration for carbon dioxide was 950 ppm, for ammonia 5 ppm, for methane 48 ppm, for relative humidity 70%, and for inside air velocity 0.2 m/s. The average winter and summer indoor temperatures during the measurement period were -7º C and +24 ºC for the uninsulated, +3 ºC and +20 ºC for the semi-insulated and +10 ºC and +25 ºC for the fully-insulated dairy buildings. The measurement results showed that the uninsulated dairy buildings had lower indoor gas concentrations and emissions compared to fully insulated buildings. Although occasionally exceeded, the ventilation rates and average indoor air quality in the dairy buildings were largely within recommended limits. We assessed the traditional heat balance, moisture balance, carbon dioxide balance and direct airflow methods for estimating ventilation rates. The direct velocity measurement for the estimation of ventilation rate proved to be impractical for naturally ventilated buildings. Two methods were developed for estimating ventilation rates. The first method is applicable in buildings in which the ventilation can be stopped or completely closed. The second method is useful in naturally ventilated buildings with large openings and high ventilation rates where spatial gas concentrations are heterogeneously distributed. The two traditional methods (carbon dioxide and methane balances), and two newly developed methods (theoretical modelling using Fick s law and boundary layer theory, and the recirculation flux-chamber technique) were used to estimate ammonia emissions from the dairy buildings. Using the traditional carbon dioxide balance method, ammonia emissions per cow from the dairy buildings ranged from 7 g day-1 to 35 g day-1, and methane emissions per cow ranged from 96 g day-1 to 348 g day-1. The developed methods proved to be as equally accurate as the traditional methods. Variation between the mean emissions estimated with the traditional and the developed methods was less than 20%. The developed modelling procedure provided sound framework for examining the impact of production systems on ammonia emissions in dairy buildings.

Modifications of surface materials and their effects on cleanability as studied by radiochemical methods

Modifications of surface materials and their effects on cleanability have important impacts in many fields of activity. In this study the primary aim was to develop radiochemical methods suitable for evaluating cleanability in material research for different environments. Another aim was to investigate the effects of surface modifications on cleanabilitity and surface properties of plastics, ceramics, concrete materials and also their coatings in conditions simulating their typical environments. Several new 51Cr and 14C labelled soils were developed for testing situations. The new radiochemical methods developed were suitable for examining different surface materials and different soil types, providing quantitative information about the amount of soil on surfaces. They also take into account soil soaked into surfaces. The supporting methods colorimetric determination and ATP bioluminescence provided semi-quantitative results. The results from the radiochemical and supporting methods partly correlated with each other. From a material research point of view numerous new materials were evaluated. These included both laboratory-made model materials and commercial products. Increasing the amount of plasticizer decreased the cleanability of poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) materials. Microstructured surfaces of plastics improved the cleanability of PVC from particle soils, whereas for oil soil microstructuring reduced the cleanability. In the case of glazed ceramic materials, coatings affected the cleanability. The roughness of surfaces correlated with cleanability from particle soils and the cleanability from oil soil correlated with the contact angles. Organic particle soil was removed more efficiently from TiO2-coated ceramic surfaces after UV-radiation than without UV treatment, whereas no effect was observed on the cleanability of oil soil. Coatings improved the cleanability of concrete flooring materials intended for use in animal houses.

Phosphorus in agricultural soils of Finland - characterization of reserves and retention in mineral soil profiles

An overwhelming majority of all the research on soil phosphorus (P) has been carried out with soil samples taken from the surface soils only, and our understanding of the forms and the reactions of P at a soil profile scale is based on few observations. In Finland, the interest in studying the P in complete soil profiles has been particularly small because of the lack of tradition in studying soil genesis, morphology, or classification. In this thesis, the P reserves and the retention of orthophosphate phosphorus (PO4-P) were examined in four cultivated mineral soil profiles in Finland (three Inceptisols and one Spodosol). The soils were classified according to the U.S. Soil Taxonomy and soil samples were taken from the genetic horizons in the profiles. The samples were analyzed for total P concentration, Chang and Jackson P fractions, P sorption properties, concentrations of water-extractable P, and for concentrations of oxalate-extractable Al and Fe. Theoretical P sorption capacities and degrees of P saturation were calculated with the data from the oxalate-extractions and the P fractionations. The studied profiles can be divided into sections with clearly differing P characteristics by their master horizons Ap, B and C. The C (or transitional BC) horizons below an approximate depth of 70 cm were dominated by, assumingly apatitic, H2SO4-soluble P. The concentration of total P in the C horizons ranged from 729 to 810 mg kg-1. In the B horizons between the depths of 30 and 70 cm, a significant part of the primary acid-soluble P has been weathered and transformed to secondary P forms. A mean weathering rate of the primary P in the soils was estimated to vary between 230 and 290 g ha-1 year-1. The degrees of P saturation in the B and C horizons were smaller than 7%, and the solubility of PO4-P was negligible. The P conditions in the Ap horizons differed drastically from those in the subsurface horizons. The high concentrations of total P (689-1870 mg kg-1) in the Ap horizons are most likely attributable to long-term cultivation with positive P balances. A significant proportion of the P in the Ap horizons occurred in the NH4F- and NaOH-extractable forms and as organic P. These three P pools, together with the concentrations of oxalate-extractable Al and Fe, seem to control the dynamics of PO4-P in the soils. The degrees of P saturation in the Ap horizons were greater (8-36%) than in the subsurface horizons. This was also reflected in the sorption experiments: Only the Ap horizons were able to maintain elevated PO4-P concentrations in the solution phase − all the subsoil horizons acted as sinks for PO4-P. Most of the available sorption capacity in the soils is located in the B horizons. The results suggest that this capacity could be utilized in reducing the losses of soluble P from excessively fertilized soils by mixing highly sorptive material from the B horizons with the P-enriched surface soil. The drastic differences in the P characteristics observed between adjoining horizons have to be taken into consideration when conducting soil sampling. Sampling of subsoils has to be made according to the genetic horizons or at small depth increments. Otherwise, contrasting materials are likely to be mixed in the same sample; and the results of such samples are not representative of any material present in the studied profile. Air-drying of soil samples was found to alter the results of the sorption experiments and the water extractions. This indicates that the studies on the most labile P forms in soil should be carried out with moist samples.

Land leasing, land degradation and agricultural productivity in Finland

This study analysed whether the land tenure insecurity problem has led to a decline in long-term land improvements (liming and phosphorus fertilization) under the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) and Nordic production conditions in European Union (EU) countries such as Finland. The results suggests that under traditional cash lease contracts, which are encouraged by the existing land leasing regulations and agricultural subsidy programs, the land tenure insecurity problem on leased land reduces land improvements that have a long pay-back period. In particular, soil pH was found to be significantly lower on land cultivated under a lease contract compared to land owned by the farmers themselves. The results also indicate that land improvements could not be reversed by land markets, because land owners would otherwise have carried out land improvements even if not farming by themselves. To reveal the causality between land tenure and land improvements, the dynamic optimisation problem was solved by a stochastic dynamic programming routine with known parameters for one-period returns and transition equations. The model parameters represented Finnish soil quality and production conditions. The decision rules were solved for alternative likelihood scenarios over the continuation of the fixed-term lease contract. The results suggest that as the probability of non-renewal of the lease contract increases, farmers quickly reduce investments in irreversible land improvements and, thereafter, yields gradually decline. The simulations highlighted the observed trends of a decline in land improvements on land parcels that are cultivated under lease contracts. Land tenure has resulted in the neglect of land improvement in Finland. This study aimed to analyze whether these challenges could be resolved by a tax policy that encourages land sales. Using Finnish data, real estate tax and a temporal relaxation on the taxation of capital gains showed some potential for the restructuring of land ownership. Potential sellers who could not be revealed by traditional logit models were identified with the latent class approach. Those landowners with an intention to sell even without a policy change were sensitive to temporal relaxation in the taxation of capital gains. In the long term, productivity and especially productivity growth are necessary conditions for the survival of farms and the food industry in Finland. Technical progress was found to drive the increase in productivity. The scale had only a moderate effect and for the whole study period (1976–2006) the effect was close to zero. Total factor productivity (TFP) increased, depending on the model, by 0.6–1.7% per year. The results demonstrated that the increase in productivity was hindered by the policy changes introduced in 1995. It is also evidenced that the increase in land leasing is connected to these policy changes. Land institutions and land tenure questions are essential in agricultural and rural policies on all levels, from local to international. Land ownership and land titles are commonly tied to fundamental political, economic and social questions. A fair resolution calls for innovative and new solutions both on national and international levels. However, this seems to be a problem when considering the application of EU regulations to member states inheriting divergent landownership structures and farming cultures. The contribution of this study is in describing the consequences of fitting EU agricultural policy to Finnish agricultural land tenure conditions and heritage.

Components of productivity growth in Finnish agriculture

The objective was to measure productivity growth and its components in Finnish agriculture, especially in dairy farming. The objective was also to compare different methods and models - both parametric (stochastic frontier analysis) and non-parametric (data envelopment analysis) - in estimating the components of productivity growth and the sensitivity of results with respect to different approaches. The parametric approach was also applied in the investigation of various aspects of heterogeneity. A common feature of the first three of five articles is that they concentrate empirically on technical change, technical efficiency change and the scale effect, mainly on the basis of the decompositions of Malmquist productivity index. The last two articles explore an intermediate route between the Fisher and Malmquist productivity indices and develop a detailed but meaningful decomposition for the Fisher index, including also empirical applications. Distance functions play a central role in the decomposition of Malmquist and Fisher productivity indices. Three panel data sets from 1990s have been applied in the study. The common feature of all data used is that they cover the periods before and after Finnish EU accession. Another common feature is that the analysis mainly concentrates on dairy farms or their roughage production systems. Productivity growth on Finnish dairy farms was relatively slow in the 1990s: approximately one percent per year, independent of the method used. Despite considerable annual variation, productivity growth seems to have accelerated towards the end of the period. There was a slowdown in the mid-1990s at the time of EU accession. No clear immediate effects of EU accession with respect to technical efficiency could be observed. Technical change has been the main contributor to productivity growth on dairy farms. However, average technical efficiency often showed a declining trend, meaning that the deviations from the best practice frontier are increasing over time. This suggests different paths of adjustment at the farm level. However, different methods to some extent provide different results, especially for the sub-components of productivity growth. In most analyses on dairy farms the scale effect on productivity growth was minor. A positive scale effect would be important for improving the competitiveness of Finnish agriculture through increasing farm size. This small effect may also be related to the structure of agriculture and to the allocation of investments to specific groups of farms during the research period. The result may also indicate that the utilization of scale economies faces special constraints in Finnish conditions. However, the analysis of a sample of all types of farms suggested a more considerable scale effect than the analysis on dairy farms.