Micromarrows—Three-dimensional coculture of hematopoietic stem cells and mesenchymal stromal cells

Hematopoietic stem cell (HSC) transplant is a well established curative therapy for some hematological malignancies. However, achieving adequate supply of HSC from some donor tissues can limit both its application and ultimate efficacy. The theory that this limitation could be overcome by expanding the HSC population before transplantation has motivated numerous laboratories to develop ex vivo expansion processes. Pioneering work in this field utilized stromal cells as support cells in cocultures with HSC to mimic the HSC niche. We hypothesized that through translation of this classic coculture system to a three-dimensional (3D) structure we could better replicate the niche environment and in turn enhance HSC expansion. Herein we describe a novel high-throughput 3D coculture system where murine-derived HSC can be cocultured with mesenchymal stem/stromal cells (MSC) in 3D microaggregates—which we term “micromarrows.” Micromarrows were formed using surface modified microwells and their ability to support HSC expansion was compared to classic two-dimensional (2D) cocultures. While both 2D and 3D systems provide only a modest total cell expansion in the minimally supplemented medium, the micromarrow system supported the expansion of approximately twice as many HSC candidates as the 2D controls. Histology revealed that at day 7, the majority of bound hematopoietic cells reside in the outer layers of the aggregate. Quantitative polymerase chain reaction demonstrates that MSC maintained in 3D aggregates express significantly higher levels of key hematopoietic niche factors relative to their 2D equivalents. Thus, we propose that the micromarrow platform represents a promising first step toward a high-throughput HSC 3D coculture system that may enable in vitro HSC niche recapitulation and subsequent extensive in vitro HSC self-renewal.

Hematopoietic Stem Cell Development and Transcriptional Regulation

The continuous production of blood cells, a process termed hematopoiesis, is sustained throughout the lifetime of an individual by a relatively small population of cells known as hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs). HSCs are unique cells characterized by their ability to self-renew and give rise to all types of mature blood cells. Given their high proliferative potential, HSCs need to be tightly regulated on the cellular and molecular levels or could otherwise turn malignant. On the other hand, the tight regulatory control of HSC function also translates into difficulties in culturing and expanding HSCs in vitro. In fact, it is currently not possible to maintain or expand HSCs ex vivo without rapid loss of self-renewal. Increased knowledge of the unique features of important HSC niches and of key transcriptional regulatory programs that govern HSC behavior is thus needed. Additional insight in the mechanisms of stem cell formation could enable us to recapitulate the processes of HSC formation and self-renewal/expansion ex vivo with the ultimate goal of creating an unlimited supply of HSCs from e.g. human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) or induced pluripotent stem cells (iPS) to be used in therapy. We thus asked: How are hematopoietic stem cells formed and in what cellular niches does this happen (Papers I, II)? What are the molecular mechanisms that govern hematopoietic stem cell development and differentiation (Papers III, IV)? Importantly, we could show that placenta is a major fetal hematopoietic niche that harbors a large number of HSCs during midgestation (Paper I)(Gekas et al., 2005). In order to address whether the HSCs found in placenta were formed there we utilized the Runx1-LacZ knock-in and Ncx1 knockout mouse models (Paper II). Importantly, we could show that HSCs emerge de novo in the placental vasculature in the absence of circulation (Rhodes et al., 2008). Furthermore, we could identify defined microenvironmental niches within the placenta with distinct roles in hematopoiesis: the large vessels of the chorioallantoic mesenchyme serve as sites of HSC generation whereas the placental labyrinth is a niche supporting HSC expansion (Rhodes et al., 2008). Overall, these studies illustrate the importance of distinct milieus in the emergence and subsequent maturation of HSCs. To ensure proper function of HSCs several regulatory mechanisms are in place. The microenvironment in which HSCs reside provides soluble factors and cell-cell interactions. In the cell-nucleus, these cell-extrinsic cues are interpreted in the context of cell-intrinsic developmental programs which are governed by transcription factors. An essential transcription factor for initiation of hematopoiesis is Scl/Tal1 (stem cell leukemia gene/T-cell acute leukemia gene 1). Loss of Scl results in early embryonic death and total lack of all blood cells, yet deactivation of Scl in the adult does not affect HSC function (Mikkola et al., 2003b. In order to define the temporal window of Scl requirement during fetal hematopoietic development, we deactivated Scl in all hematopoietic lineages shortly after hematopoietic specification in the embryo . Interestingly, maturation, expansion and function of fetal HSCs was unaffected, and, as in the adult, red blood cell and platelet differentiation was impaired (Paper III)(Schlaeger et al., 2005). These findings highlight that, once specified, the hematopoietic fate is stable even in the absence of Scl and is maintained through mechanisms that are distinct from those required for the initial fate choice. As the critical downstream targets of Scl remain unknown, we sought to identify and characterize target genes of Scl (Paper IV). We could identify transcription factor Mef2C (myocyte enhancer factor 2 C) as a novel direct target gene of Scl specifically in the megakaryocyte lineage which largely explains the megakaryocyte defect observed in Scl deficient mice. In addition, we observed an Scl-independent requirement of Mef2C in the B-cell compartment, as loss of Mef2C leads to accelerated B-cell aging (Gekas et al. Submitted). Taken together, these studies identify key extracellular microenvironments and intracellular transcriptional regulators that dictate different stages of HSC development, from emergence to lineage choice to aging.

Expansion of human hematopoietic stem/progenitor cells on decellularized matrix scaffolds

Umbilical cord blood (UCB) is one of the richest sources for hematopoietic stem/progenitor cells (HSPCs), with more than 3000 transplantations performed each year for the treatment of leukemia and other bone marrow, immunological, and hereditary diseases. However, transplantation of single cord blood units is mostly restricted to children, due to the limited number of HSPC per unit. This unit develops a method to increase the number of HSPCs in laboratory conditions by using cell-free matrices from bone marrow cells that mimic 'human-body niche-like' conditions as biological scaffolds to support the ex vivo expansion of HSPCs. In this unit, we describe protocols for the isolation and characterization of HSPCs from UCB and their serum-free expansion on decellularized matrices. This method may also help to provide understanding of the biochemical organization of hematopoietic niches and lead to suggestions regarding the design of tissue engineering-based biomimetic scaffolds for HSPC expansion for clinical applications.

Enhanced Ex Vivo expansion of human hematopoietic progenitors on native and spin coated acellular matrices prepared from bone marrow stromal cells

The extracellular microenvironment in bone marrow (BM) is known to regulate the growth and differentiation of hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPC). We have developed cell-free matrices from a BM stromal cell line (HS-5), which can be used as substrates either in native form or as tissue engineered coatings, for the enhanced ex vivo expansion of umbilical cord blood (UCB) derived HSPC. The physicochemical properties (surface roughness, thickness, and uniformity) of native and spin coated acellular matrices (ACM) were studied using scanning and atomic force microscopy (SEM and AFM). Lineage-specific expansion of HSPC, grown on these substrates, was evaluated by immunophenotypic (flow cytometry) and functional (colony forming) assays. Our results show that the most efficient expansion of lineage-specific HSPC occurred on spin coated ACM. Our method provides an improved protocol for ex vivo HSPC expansion and it offers a system to study the in vivo roles of specific molecules in the hematopoietic niche that influence HSPC expansion.

Étude des effets du phénotype de sénescence des cellules stromales de la moelle osseuse sur les fonctions hématopoïétiques

L’irradiation (IR) est utilisée dans le traitement de plusieurs cancers et désordres hématologiques, en particulier dans les protocoles de conditionnement précédents les transplantations de moelle osseuse. L’emploi de doses réduites d’IR semble favoriser le succès de la prise de greffe. Cette observation soulève un point de plus en plus discuté dans la littérature, soit l’importance de l’intégrité du microenvironnement pour la transplantation et le bon fonctionnement de l’hématopoïèse. L’IR induit la sénescence des cellules stromales de la moelle osseuse in vitro. Ce mécanisme de défense cellulaire entraînant un arrêt de prolifération permanent est également observé in vivo dans différents systèmes, mais n’a pas encore été étudié dans le contexte de la niche hématopoïétique. Les travaux présentés dans cette thèse ont pour objectif de déterminer si l’IR induit la sénescence des cellules stromales de la moelle osseuse et si une telle induction altère les fonctions hématopoïétiques. Nos résultats ont permis de démontrer pour la première fois qu’une IR corporelle totale induit effectivement la sénescence des cellules stromales de la moelle osseuse. En outre, cette altération du microenvironnement affecte la lymphopoïèse B de façon Ink4a/Arf-dépendante (1er article). De plus, les modifications systémiques qui résultent de l’IR compromettent l’homéostasie osseuse en augmentant la résorption de l’os, sans toutefois diminuer la formation de celui-ci (2e article). Ces données nous permettent de mieux comprendre les effets de la sénescence des cellules stromales de la moelle osseuse sur les fonctions hématopoïétiques. Par ailleurs, elles suggèrent que l’emploi de drogues et/ou de procédés n’induisant pas la sénescence des cellules stromales de l’os offrirait un meilleur pronostic à long terme pour les patients.

Caractérisation du rôle et des mécanismes d’action des gènes Hoxa dans l’hématopoïèse adulte

Chez les humains, un large pourcentage de leucémies myéloïdes et lymphoïdes exprime des gènes Homéobox (Hox) de façon aberrante, principalement ceux du groupe des gènes Hoxa. Cette dérégulation de l’expression des gènes Hox peut provenir directement des translocations impliquant des gènes Hox ou indirectement par d’autres protéines ayant un potentiel oncogénique. De plus, plusieurs études indiquent que les gènes Hox jouent un rôle essentiel dans l'initiation de diverses leucémies. Comprendre le fonctionnement des gènes Hox dans l'hématopoïèse normale est donc une condition préalable pour élucider leurs fonctions dans les leucémies, ce qui pourrait éventuellement conduire à l’élaboration de nouveaux traitements contre cette maladie. Plusieurs études ont tenté d’élucider les rôles exacts des gènes Hox dans l'hématopoïèse via l’utilisation de souris mutantes pour un seul gène Hox. Or, en raison du phénomène de redondance fonctionnelle chez cette famille de gènes, ces études ont été peu concluantes. Il a été précédemment démontré que dans une population de cellules enrichies en cellules souches hématopoïétiques (CSH), les gènes du cluster Hoxa sont plus exprimés que les gènes Hox des autres clusters. Aussi, il a été établi que les gènes du cluster Hoxb sont non essentiels à l’hématopoïèse définitive puisque les CSH mutantes pour les gènes Hoxb1-9 conservent leur potentiel de reconstitution à long terme. En nous basant sur ces données, nous avons émis l'hypothèse suivante : les gènes Hoxa sont essentiels pour l'hématopoïèse normale adulte. Pour tester notre hypothèse, nous avons choisi d’utiliser un modèle de souris comportant une délétion pour l’ensemble des gènes Hoxa. Dans le cadre de cette recherche, nous avons démontré que les CSH, les progéniteurs primitifs et les progéniteurs des cellules B sont particulièrement sensibles au niveau d'expression des gènes Hoxa. Plus particulièrement, une baisse de la survie et une différenciation prématurée semblent être à l’origine de la perte des CSH Hoxa-/- dans la moelle osseuse. L’analyse du profil transcriptionnel des CSH par séquençage de l'ARN a révélé que les gènes Hoxa sont capables de réguler un vaste réseau de gènes impliqués dans divers processus biologiques. En effet, les gènes Hoxa régulent l’expression de plusieurs gènes codant pour des récepteurs de cytokine. De plus, les gènes Hoxa influencent l’expression de gènes jouant une fonction dans l’architecture de la niche hématopoïétique. L’expression de plusieurs molécules d’adhésion est aussi modulée par les gènes Hoxa, ce qui peut affecter la relation des CSH avec la niche hématopoïétique. L’ensemble de ces résultats démontre que les gènes Hoxa sont d'importants régulateurs de l'hématopoïèse adulte puisqu’ils sont nécessaires au maintien des CSH et des progéniteurs grâce à leurs effets sur plusieurs processus biologiques comme l'apoptose, le cycle cellulaire et les interactions avec la niche.

Die Rolle von Chemokinrezeptor CXCR4 und Connective Tissue Growth Factor innerhalb der Tumor-Stroma-Interaktion in der akuten myeloischen Leukämie

Die akute myeloische Leukämie (AML) ist eine heterogene Erkrankung der hämatopoetischen Vorläuferzelle, die durch unkontrollierte Vermehrung und ein reduziertes Differenzierungsverhalten gekennzeichnet ist. Aufgrund von Therapieresistenzen und häufig vorkommenden Rückfällen ist die AML mit einer schlechten Langzeitprognose verbunden. Neue Studienergebnisse zeigen, dass leukämische Zellen einer hierarchischen Ordnung unterliegen, an deren Spitze die leukämische Stammzelle (LSC) steht, welche den Tumor speist und ähnliche Charakteristika besitzt wie die hämatopoetische Stammzelle. Die LSC nutzt den Kontakt zu Zellen der hämatopoetischen Nische des Knochenmarks, um die erste Therapie zu überdauern und Resistenzen zu erwerben. Neue Therapieansätze versuchen diese Interaktion zwischen leukämischen Zellen und supportiv wirkenden Stromazellen anzugreifen. rnrnIn dieser Arbeit sollte die Bedeutung des CXC-Motiv Chemokinrezeptors Typ 4 (CXCR4) und des Connective Tissue Growth Factors (CTGF) innerhalb der AML-Stroma-Interaktion untersucht werden. CXCR4, der in vivo dafür sorgt, dass AML-Zellen in der Nische gehalten und geschützt werden, wurde durch den neuwertigen humanen CXCR4-spezifischen Antikörper BMS-936564/MDX-1338 in AML-Zelllinien und Patientenzellen in Zellkulturversuchen blockiert. Dies induzierte Apoptose sowie Differenzierung und führte in Kokulturversuchen zu einer Aufhebung des Stroma-vermittelten Schutzes gegenüber der Chemotherapie. Für diese Effekte musste teilweise ein sekundärer Antikörper verwendet werden, der die CXCR4-Moleküle miteinander kreuzvernetzt.rnDie Auswertung eines quantitativen Real time PCR (qPCR)-Arrays ergab, dass CTGF in der AML-Zelllinie Molm-14 nach Kontakt zu Stromazellen hochreguliert wird. Diese Hochregulation konnte in insgesamt drei AML-Zelllinien sowie in drei Patientenproben in qPCR- und Western Blot-Versuchen bestätigt werden. Weitere Untersuchungen zeigten, dass diese Hochregulation (i) unabhängig von der Stromazelllinie ist, (ii) den direkten Kontakt zum Stroma benötigt und (iii) auch unter hypoxischen Bedingungen, wie sie innerhalb des Knochenmarks vorherrschen, stattfindet. Der durch Zell-Zell- oder Zell-Matrix-Kontakt gesteuerte Hippo-Signalweg konnte aus folgenden Gründen als möglicher upstream-Regulationsmechanismus identifiziert werden: (i) Dessen zentraler Transkriptions-Kofaktor TAZ wurde in kokultivierten Molm-14-Zellen stabilisiert, (ii) der shRNA-gesteuerte Knockdown von TAZ führte zu einer reduzierten CTGF-Hochregulation, (iii) CTGF wurde in Abhängigkeit von der Zelldichte reguliert, (iv) Cysteine-rich angiogenic inducer 61 (Cyr61), ein weiteres Zielgen von TAZ, wurde in kokultivierten AML-Zellen ebenfalls verstärkt exprimiert. Der Knockdown von CTGF führte in vitro zu einer partiellen Aufhebung der Stroma-vermittelten Resistenz und die Blockierung von CTGF durch den Antikörper FG-3019 wirkte im AML-Mausmodell lebensverlängernd. rn rnDie Rolle von CTGF in der AML ist bisher nicht untersucht. Die vorliegenden Ergebnisse zeigen, dass CTGF ein interessantes Therapieziel in der AML darstellt. Es bedarf weiterer Untersuchungen, um die Bedeutung von CTGF in der Tumor-Stroma-Interaktion näher zu charakterisieren und nachgeschaltete Signalwege zu identifizieren.

THE CONSEQUENCES OF DISRUPTING THE MDM2-P53 BALANCE IN HEMATOPOIESIS

The bone marrow accommodates hematopoietic stem cells and progenitors. These cells provide an indispensible resource for replenishing the blood constituents throughout an organism’s life. A tissue with such a high turn-over rate mandates intact cycling checkpoint and apoptotic pathways to avoid inappropriate cell proliferation and ultimately the development of leukemias. p53, a major tumor suppressor, is a transcription factor that regulates cell cycle, and induces apoptosis and senescence. Mice inheriting a hypomorphic p53 allele in the absence of Mdm2, a p53 inhibitor, have elevated p53 cell cycle activity and die by postnatal day 13 due to hematopoietic failure. Hematopoiesis progresses normally during embryogenesis until it moves to the bone marrow in late development. Increased oxidative stress in the bone marrow compartment postnatally is the impediment for normal hematopoiesis via activation of p53. p53 in turn stimulates the generation of more reactive oxygen species and depletes bone marrow cellularity. Also, p53 exerts various defects on the hematopoietic niche by increasing mesenchymal lineage populations and their differentiation. Hematopoietic defects are rescued with antioxidants or when cells are cultured at low oxygen levels. Deletion of p16 partially rescues bone marrow cellularity and progenitors via a p53-independent pathway. Thus, although p53 is required to inhibit tumorigenesis, Mdm2 is required to control ROS-induced p53 levels for sustainable hematopoiesis and survival during homeostasis.

Replication of hematopoietic stem cell niche

This thesis models the hematopoietic stem cell (HSC) niche by using decellularized extracellular matrix (ECM) scaffolds prepared by MS-5 cell line. The ECM replicates many of the properties of HSC niches in vivo, providing insights into expansion of HSCs that may have several applications in translational medicine.

Connexin-43 in the osteogenic BM niche regulates its cellular composition and the bidirectional traffic of hematopoietic stem cells and progenitors

Connexin-43 (Cx43), a gap junction protein involved in control of cell proliferation, differentiation and migration, has been suggested to have a role in hematopoiesis. Cx43 is highly expressed in osteoblasts and osteogenic progenitors (OB/P). To elucidate the biologic function of Cx43 in the hematopoietic microenvironment (HM) and its influence in hematopoietic stem cell (HSC) activity, we studied the hematopoietic function in an in vivo model of constitutive deficiency of Cx43 in OB/P. The deficiency of Cx43 in OB/P cells does not impair the steady state hematopoiesis, but disrupts the directional trafficking of HSC/progenitors (Ps) between the bone marrow (BM) and peripheral blood (PB). OB/P Cx43 is a crucial positive regulator of transstromal migration and homing of both HSCs and progenitors in an irradiated microenvironment. However, OB/P Cx43 deficiency in nonmyeloablated animals does not result in a homing defect but induces increased endosteal lodging and decreased mobilization of HSC/Ps associated with proliferation and expansion of Cxcl12-secreting mesenchymal/osteolineage cells in the BM HM in vivo. Cx43 controls the cellular content of the BM osteogenic microenvironment and is required for homing of HSC/Ps in myeloablated animals

Selective enhancement of donor hematopoietic cell engraftment by the CXCR4 antagonist AMD3100 in a mouse transplantation model.

The interaction between stromal cell-derived factor-1 (SDF-1) with CXCR4 chemokine receptors plays an important role in hematopoiesis following hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. We examined the efficacy of post transplant administration of a specific CXCR4 antagonist (AMD3100) in improving animal survival and in enhancing donor hematopoietic cell engraftment using a congeneic mouse transplantation model. AMD3100 was administered subcutaneously at 5 mg/kg body weight 3 times a week beginning at day +2 post-transplant. Post-transplant administration of AMD3100 significantly improves animal survival. AMD3100 reduces pro-inflammatory cytokine/chemokine production. Furthermore, post transplant administration of AMD3100 selectively enhances donor cell engraftment and promotes recovery of all donor cell lineages (myeloid cells, T and B lymphocytes, erythrocytes and platelets). This enhancement results from a combined effect of increased marrow niche availability and greater cell division induced by AMD3100. Our studies shed new lights into the biological roles of SDF-1/CXCR4 interaction in hematopoietic stem cell engraftment following transplantation and in transplant-related mortality. Our results indicate that AMD3100 provides a novel approach for enhancing hematological recovery following transplantation, and will likely benefit patients undergoing transplantation.

The molecular signature of the stroma response in prostate cancer-induced osteoblastic bone metastasis highlights expansion of hematopoietic and prostate epithelial stem cell niches

The reciprocal interaction between cancer cells and the tissue-specific stroma is critical for primary and metastatic tumor growth progression. Prostate cancer cells colonize preferentially bone (osteotropism), where they alter the physiological balance between osteoblast-mediated bone formation and osteoclast-mediated bone resorption, and elicit prevalently an osteoblastic response (osteoinduction). The molecular cues provided by osteoblasts for the survival and growth of bone metastatic prostate cancer cells are largely unknown. We exploited the sufficient divergence between human and mouse RNA sequences together with redefinition of highly species-specific gene arrays by computer-aided and experimental exclusion of cross-hybridizing oligonucleotide probes. This strategy allowed the dissection of the stroma (mouse) from the cancer cell (human) transcriptome in bone metastasis xenograft models of human osteoinductive prostate cancer cells (VCaP and C4-2B). As a result, we generated the osteoblastic bone metastasis-associated stroma transcriptome (OB-BMST). Subtraction of genes shared by inflammation, wound healing and desmoplastic responses, and by the tissue type-independent stroma responses to a variety of non-osteotropic and osteotropic primary cancers generated a curated gene signature ("Core" OB-BMST) putatively representing the bone marrow/bone-specific stroma response to prostate cancer-induced, osteoblastic bone metastasis. The expression pattern of three representative Core OB-BMST genes (PTN, EPHA3 and FSCN1) seems to confirm the bone specificity of this response. A robust induction of genes involved in osteogenesis and angiogenesis dominates both the OB-BMST and Core OB-BMST. This translates in an amplification of hematopoietic and, remarkably, prostate epithelial stem cell niche components that may function as a self-reinforcing bone metastatic niche providing a growth support specific for osteoinductive prostate cancer cells. The induction of this combinatorial stem cell niche is a novel mechanism that may also explain cancer cell osteotropism and local interference with hematopoiesis (myelophthisis). Accordingly, these stem cell niche components may represent innovative therapeutic targets and/or serum biomarkers in osteoblastic bone metastasis.

Hematopoietic stem cell function and survival depend on c-Myc and N-Myc activity.

Myc activity is emerging as a key element in acquisition and maintenance of stem cell properties. We have previously shown that c-Myc deficiency results in accumulation of defective hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) due to niche-dependent differentiation defects. Here we report that immature HSCs coexpress c-myc and N-myc mRNA at similar levels. Although conditional deletion of N-myc in the bone marrow does not affect hematopoiesis, combined deficiency of c-Myc and N-Myc (dKO) results in pancytopenia and rapid lethality. Interestingly, proliferation of HSCs depends on both myc genes during homeostasis, but is c-Myc/N-Myc independent during bone marrow repair after injury. Strikingly, while most dKO hematopoietic cells undergo apoptosis, only self-renewing HSCs accumulate the cytotoxic molecule Granzyme B, normally employed by the innate immune system, thereby revealing an unexpected mechanism of stem cell apoptosis. Collectively, Myc activity (c-Myc and N-Myc) controls crucial aspects of HSC function including proliferation, differentiation, and survival.

Hematopoietic stem cells, overview and pathways implied on their self-renewal mechanisms

Blood tissue is composed approximately in 45% by cells and its derivatives, with a life span of around 120 days for erythrocytes and 3 years for certain type of lymphocytes. This lost is compensated with the hematopoietic system activity and the presence of an immature primitive cell population known as Hematopoietic Stem Cells (HSCs) which perform the hematopoiesis, a process that is active from the beginning of the fetal life and produces near to 2 x 1011 eritrocytes and 1010 white blood cells per day (1). Hematopoietic Stem Cells are capable of both self-renewal and differentiation into multiple lineages, are located in a particular niche and are identified by their own cell surface markers, as the CD34 antigen. Recently it has been possible to advance in the understanding of self-renewal, differentiation and proliferation processes and in the involvement of the signaling pathways Hedgehog, Notch and Wnt. Studying the influence of these mechanisms on in vivo and in vitro behavior and the basic biology of HSCs, has given valuable tools for the generation of alternative therapies for hematologic disorders as leukemias.