IMO mandatory energy efficiency measures for international shipping : the first mandatory global greenhouse gas reduction instrument for an international industry

Bunker fuels used in the aviation and maritime sectors are responsible for nearly 10% of global greenhouse gas emissions.1 According to a scientific survey: ‘[s]hipping is estimated to have emitted 1,046 million tonnes of CO2 in 2007, which corresponds to 3.3% of the global emissions during 2007. International shipping is estimated to have emitted 870 million tonnes, or about 2.7% of the global emissions of CO2 in 2007’. The study also predicted that ‘by 2050, in the absence of policies, ship emissions may grow by 150% to 250% (compared to the emissions in 2007) as a result of the growth in shipping.’

Impact assessment of increasing the 20% Greenhouse gas reduction target of the EU for Hungary (executive summary)

This study has the objective to analyse the impacts on the Hungarian economy of a higher EU GHG (greenhouse gas) reduction undertaking for 2020, namely increasing the GHG reduction target to 20% and to 30% relative to 1990. In order to achieve this objective, we quantify the costs/benefits of these increased undertakings for the various sectors of the Hungarian economy.

Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions Through Alterations to the Public Right-of-Way

Thesis (Master's)--University of Washington, 2016-06

Climate change and IMO technical and operational measures for reduction of emissions of greenhouse gas from ships

According to a study conducted by the International Maritime organisation (IMO) shipping sector is responsible for 3.3% of the global Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions. The 1997 Kyoto Protocol calls upon states to pursue limitation or reduction of emissions of GHG from marine bunker fuels working through the IMO. In 2011, 14 years after the adoption of the Kyoto Protocol, the Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC) of the IMO has adopted mandatory energy efficiency measures for international shipping which can be treated as the first ever mandatory global GHG reduction instrument for an international industry. The MEPC approved an amendment of Annex VI of the 1973 International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL 73/78) to introduce a mandatory Energy Efficiency Design Index (EEDI) for new ships and the Ship Energy Efficiency Management Plan (SEEMP) for all ships. Considering the growth projections of human population and world trade the technical and operational measures may not be able to reduce the amount of GHG emissions from international shipping in a satisfactory level. Therefore, the IMO is considering to introduce market-based mechanisms that may serve two purposes including providing a fiscal incentive for the maritime industry to invest in more energy efficient manner and off-setting of growing ship emissions. Some leading developing countries already voiced their serious reservations on the newly adopted IMO regulations stating that by imposing the same obligation on all countries, irrespective of their economic status, this amendment has rejected the Principle of Common but Differentiated Responsibility (the CBDR Principle), which has always been the cornerstone of international climate change law discourses. They also claimed that negotiation for a market based mechanism should not be continued without a clear commitment from the developed counters for promotion of technical co-operation and transfer of technology relating to the improvement of energy efficiency of ships. Against this backdrop, this article explores the challenges for the developing counters in the implementation of already adopted technical and operational measures.

IMO technical and operational measures for reduction of emissions of greenhouse gas from ships : perspectives of Asian countries

International shipping is responsible for about 2.7% of the global emissions of CO2. In the absence of proper action, emissions from the maritime sector may grow by 150% to 250% by 2050, in comparison with the level of emissions in 2007. Against this backdrop, the International Maritime Organisation has introduced a mandatory Energy Efficiency Design Index (EEDI) for new ships and the Ship Energy Efficiency Management Plan (SEEMP) for all ships. Some Asian countries have voiced serious reservations about the newly adopted IMO regulations. They have suggested that imposing the same obligations on all countries, irrespective of their economic status, is a serious departure from the Principle of Common but Differentiated Responsibility, which has always been the cornerstone of international climate change law discourse. Against this backdrop, this article presents a brief overview of the technical and operational measures from the perspective of Asian countries.

Proposed MBMs for reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from international shipping and the WTO rules

The international shipping sector is a major contributor to global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The International Maritime Organisation (IMO) has adopted some technical and operational measures to reduce GHG emissions from international shipping. However, these measures may not be enough to reduce the amount of GHG emissions from international shipping to an acceptable level. Therefore, the IMO Member States are currently considering a number of proposals for the introduction of market-based measures (MBMs). During the negotiation process, some leading developing countries raised questions about the probable confl ict of the proposed MBMs with the rules of the World Trade Organisation (WTO). This article comprehensively examines this issue and argues that none of the MBM proposals currently under consideration by the IMO has any confl ict with the WTO rules.

Reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from UK hotels in 2030

The feasibility of halving greenhousegasemissions from hotels by 2030 has been studied as part of the Carbon Vision Buildings Programme. The aim of that programme was to study ways of reducing emissions from the existing stock because it will be responsible for the majority of building emissions over the next few decades. The work was carried out using detailed computer simulation using the ESP-r tool. Two hotels were studied, one older and converted and the other newer and purpose-built, with the aim of representing the most common UKhotel types. The effects were studied of interventions expected to be available in 2030 including fabric improvements, HVAC changes, lighting and appliance improvements and renewable energy generation. The main finding was that it is technically feasible to reduce emissions by 50% without compromising guest comfort. Ranking of the interventions was problematical for several reasons including interdependence and the impacts on boiler sizing of large reductions in the heating load

Optimal Rehabilitation Strategy In Water Distribution Systems Considering Reduction In Greenhouse Gas Emissions

Most of water distribution systems (WDS) need rehabilitation due to aging infrastructure leading to decreasing capacity, increasing leakage and consequently low performance of the WDS. However an appropriate strategy including location and time of pipeline rehabilitation in a WDS with respect to a limited budget is the main challenge which has been addressed frequently by researchers and practitioners. On the other hand, selection of appropriate rehabilitation technique and material types is another main issue which has yet to address properly. The latter can affect the environmental impacts of a rehabilitation strategy meeting the challenges of global warming mitigation and consequent climate change. This paper presents a multi-objective optimization model for rehabilitation strategy in WDS addressing the abovementioned criteria mainly focused on greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions either directly from fossil fuel and electricity or indirectly from embodied energy of materials. Thus, the objective functions are to minimise: (1) the total cost of rehabilitation including capital and operational costs; (2) the leakage amount; (3) GHG emissions. The Pareto optimal front containing optimal solutions is determined using Non-dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm NSGA-II. Decision variables in this optimisation problem are classified into a number of groups as: (1) percentage proportion of each rehabilitation technique each year; (2) material types of new pipeline for rehabilitation each year. Rehabilitation techniques used here includes replacement, rehabilitation and lining, cleaning, pipe duplication. The developed model is demonstrated through its application to a Mahalat WDS located in central part of Iran. The rehabilitation strategy is analysed for a 40 year planning horizon. A number of conventional techniques for selecting pipes for rehabilitation are analysed in this study. The results show that the optimal rehabilitation strategy considering GHG emissions is able to successfully save the total expenses, efficiently decrease the leakage amount from the WDS whilst meeting environmental criteria.

Down scaling to regional assessment of greenhouse gas emissions to enable consistency in accounting for emissions reduction projects and national inventory accounts for northern beef production in Australia

This paper explores the effect of using regional data for livestock attributes on estimation of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions for the northern beef industry in Australia, compared with using state/territory-wide values, as currently used in Australia’s national GHG inventory report. Regional GHG emissions associated with beef production are reported for 21 defined agricultural statistical regions within state/territory jurisdictions. A management scenario for reduced emissions that could qualify as an Emissions Reduction Fund (ERF) project was used to illustrate the effect of regional level model parameters on estimated abatement levels. Using regional parameters, instead of state level parameters, for liveweight (LW), LW gain and proportion of cows lactating and an expanded number of livestock classes, gives a 5.2% reduction in estimated emissions (range +12% to –34% across regions). Estimated GHG emissions intensity (emissions per kilogram of LW sold) varied across the regions by up to 2.5-fold, ranging from 10.5 kg CO2-e kg–1 LW sold for Darling Downs, Queensland, through to 25.8 kg CO2-e kg–1 LW sold for the Pindan and North Kimberley, Western Australia. This range was driven by differences in production efficiency, reproduction rate, growth rate and survival. This suggests that some regions in northern Australia are likely to have substantial opportunities for GHG abatement and higher livestock income. However, this must be coupled with the availability of management activities that can be implemented to improve production efficiency; wet season phosphorus (P) supplementation being one such practice. An ERF case study comparison showed that P supplementation of a typical-sized herd produced an estimated reduction of 622 t CO2-e year–1, or 7%, compared with a non-P supplemented herd. However, the different model parameters used by the National Inventory Report and ERF project means that there was an anomaly between the herd emissions for project cattle excised from the national accounts (13 479 t CO2-e year–1) and the baseline herd emissions estimated for the ERF project (8 896 t CO2-e year–1) before P supplementation was implemented. Regionalising livestock model parameters in both ERF projects and the national accounts offers the attraction of being able to more easily and accurately reflect emissions savings from this type of emissions reduction project in Australia’s national GHG accounts.

Regulating greenhouse gas emissions from coal mining activities in the context of climate change

Current approaches to the regulation of coal mining activities in Australia have facilitated the extraction of substantial amounts of coal and coal seam gas. The regulation of coal mining activities must now achieve the reduction or mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions in order to address the challenge of climate change and achieve ecologically sustainable development. Several legislative mechanisms currently exist which appear to offer the means to bring about the reduction or mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions from coal mining activities, yet Australia’s emissions from coal mining continue to rise. This article critiques these existing legislative mechanisms and presents recommendations for reform.

Iron biogeochemistry and associated greenhouse gas evolution in a forested subtropical Australian coastal catchment : Poona Creek, Southeast Queensland

Iron (Fe) is the fourth most abundant element in the Earth’s crust. Excess Fe mobilization from terrestrial into aquatic systems is of concern for deterioration of water quality via biofouling and nuisance algal blooms in coastal and marine systems. Substantial Fe dissolution and transport involve alternate Fe(II) oxidation followed by Fe(III) reduction, with a diversity of Bacteria and Archaea acting as the key catalyst. Microbially-mediated Fe cycling is of global significance with regard to cycles of carbon (C), sulfur (S) and manganese (Mn). However, knowledge regarding microbial Fe cycling in circumneutral-pH habitats that prevail on Earth has been lacking until recently. In particular, little is known regarding microbial function in Fe cycling and associated Fe mobilization and greenhouse (CO2 and CH4, GHG) evolution in subtropical Australian coastal systems where microbial response to ambient variations such as seasonal flooding and land use changes is of concern. Using the plantation-forested Poona Creek catchment on the Fraser Coast of Southeast Queensland (SEQ), this research aimed to 1) study Fe cycling-associated bacterial populations in diverse terrestrial and aquatic habitats of a representative subtropical coastal circumneutral-pH (4–7) ecosystem; and 2) assess potential impacts of Pinus plantation forestry practices on microbially-mediated Fe mobilization, organic C mineralization and associated GHG evolution in coastal SEQ. A combination of wet-chemical extraction, undisturbed core microcosm, laboratory bacterial cultivation, microscopy and 16S rRNA-based molecular phylogenetic techniques were employed. The study area consisted primarily of loamy sands, with low organic C and dissolved nutrients. Total reactive Fe was abundant and evenly distributed within soil 0–30 cm profiles. Organic complexation primarily controlled Fe bioavailability and forms in well-drained plantation soils and water-logged, native riparian soils, whereas tidal flushing exerted a strong “seawater effect” in estuarine locations and formed a large proportion of inorganic Fe(III) complexes. There was a lack of Fe(II) sources across the catchment terrestrial system. Mature, first-rotation plantation clear-felling and second-rotation replanting significantly decreased organic matter and poorly crystalline Fe in well-drained soils, although variations in labile soil organic C fractions (dissolved organic C, DOC; and microbial biomass C, MBC) were minor. Both well-drained plantation soils and water-logged, native-vegetation soils were inhabited by a variety of cultivable, chemotrophic bacterial populations capable of C, Fe, S and Mn metabolism via lithotrophic or heterotrophic, (micro)aerobic or anaerobic pathways. Neutrophilic Fe(III)-reducing bacteria (FeRB) were most abundant, followed by aerobic, heterotrophic bacteria (heterotrophic plate count, HPC). Despite an abundance of FeRB, cultivable Fe(II)-oxidizing bacteria (FeOB) were absent in associated soils. A lack of links between cultivable Fe, S or Mn bacterial densities and relevant chemical measurements (except for HPC correlated with DOC) was likely due to complex biogeochemical interactions. Neither did variations in cultivable bacterial densities correlate with plantation forestry practices, despite total cultivable bacterial densities being significantly lower in estuarine soils when compared with well-drained plantation soils and water-logged, riparian native-vegetation soils. Given that bacterial Fe(III) reduction is the primary mechanism of Fe oxide dissolution in soils upon saturation, associated Fe mobilization involved several abiotic and biological processes. Abiotic oxidation of dissolved Fe(II) by Mn appeared to control Fe transport and inhibit Fe dissolution from mature, first-rotation plantation soils post-saturation. Such an effect was not observed in clear-felled and replanted soils associated with low SOM and potentially low Mn reactivity. Associated GHG evolution post-saturation mainly involved variable CO2 emissions, with low, but consistently increasing CH4 effluxes in mature, first-rotation plantation soil only. In comparison, water-logged soils in the riparian native-vegetation buffer zone functioned as an important GHG source, with high potentials for Fe mobilization and GHG, particularly CH4 emissions in riparian loam soils associated with high clay and crystalline Fe fractions. Active Fe–C cycling was unlikely to occur in lower-catchment estuarine soils associated with low cultivable bacterial densities and GHG effluxes. As a key component of bacterial Fe cycling, neutrophilic FeOB widely occurred in diverse aquatic, but not terrestrial, habitats of the catchment study area. Stalked and sheathed FeOB resembling Gallionella and Leptothrix were limited to microbial mat material deposited in surface fresh waters associated with a circumneutral-pH seep, and clay-rich soil within riparian buffer zones. Unicellular, Sideroxydans-related FeOB (96% sequence identity) were ubiquitous in surface and subsurface freshwater environments, with highest abundance in estuary-adjacent shallow coastal groundwater water associated with redox transition. The abundance of dissolved C and Fe in the groundwater-dependent system was associated with high numbers of cultivable anaerobic, heterotrophic FeRB, microaerophilic, putatively lithotrophic FeOB and aerobic, heterotrophic bacteria. This research represents the first study of microbial Fe cycling in diverse circumneutral-pH environments (terrestrial–aquatic, freshwater–estuarine, surface–subsurface) of a subtropical coastal ecosystem. It also represents the first study of its kind in the southern hemisphere. This work highlights the significance of bacterial Fe(III) reduction in terrestrial, and bacterial Fe(II) oxidation in aquatic catchment Fe cycling. Results indicate the risk of promotion of Fe mobilization due to plantation clear-felling and replanting, and GHG emissions associated with seasonal water-logging. Additional significant outcomes were also achieved. The first direct evidence for multiple biomineralization patterns of neutrophilic, microaerophilic, unicellular FeOB was presented. A putatively pure culture, which represents the first cultivable neutrophilic FeOB from the southern hemisphere, was obtained as representative FeOB ubiquitous in diverse catchment aquatic habitats.

Greenhouse gas emissions in livestock production systems

Agriculture is responsible for a significant proportion of total anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions (perhaps 18% globally), and therefore has the potential to contribute to efforts to reduce emissions as a means of minimising the risk of dangerous climate change. The largest contributions to emissions are attributed to ruminant methane production and nitrous oxide from animal waste and fertilised soils. Further, livestock, including ruminants, are an important component of global and Australian food production and there is a growing demand for animal protein sources. At the same time as governments and the community strengthen objectives to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, there are growing concerns about global food security. This paper provides an overview of a number of options for reducing methane and nitrous oxide emissions from ruminant production systems in Australia, while maintaining productivity to contribute to both objectives. Options include strategies for feed modification, animal breeding and herd management, rumen manipulation and animal waste and fertiliser management. Using currently available strategies, some reductions in emissions can be achieved, but practical commercially available techniques for significant reductions in methane emissions, particularly from extensive livestock production systems, will require greater time and resource investment. Decreases in the levels of emissions from these ruminant systems (i.e., the amount of emissions per unit of product such as meat) have already been achieved. However, the technology has not yet been developed for eliminating production of methane from the rumen of cattle and sheep digesting the cellulose and lignin-rich grasses that make up a large part of the diet of animals grazing natural pastures, particularly in arid and semi-arid grazing lands. Nevertheless, the abatement that can be achieved will contribute significantly towards reaching greenhouse gas emissions reduction targets and research will achieve further advances.

Co-benefits, trade-offs, barriers and policies for greenhouse gas mitigation in the agriculture, forestry and other land use (AFOLU) sector

The agriculture, forestry and other land use (AFOLU) sector is responsible for approximately 25% of anthropogenic GHG emissions mainly from deforestation and agricultural emissions from livestock, soil and nutrient management. Mitigation from the sector is thus extremely important in meeting emission reduction targets. The sector offers a variety of cost-competitive mitigation options with most analyses indicating a decline in emissions largely due to decreasing deforestation rates. Sustainability criteria are needed to guide development and implementation of AFOLU mitigation measures with particular focus on multifunctional systems that allow the delivery of multiple services from land. It is striking that almost all of the positive and negative impacts, opportunities and barriers are context specific, precluding generic statements about which AFOLU mitigation measures have the greatest promise at a global scale. This finding underlines the importance of considering each mitigation strategy on a case-by-case basis, systemic effects when implementing mitigation options on the national scale, and suggests that policies need to be flexible enough to allow such assessments. National and international agricultural and forest (climate) policies have the potential to alter the opportunity costs of specific land uses in ways that increase opportunities or barriers for attaining climate change mitigation goals. Policies governing practices in agriculture and in forest conservation and management need to account for both effective mitigation and adaptation and can help to orient practices in agriculture and in forestry towards global sharing of innovative technologies for the efficient use of land resources. Different policy instruments, especially economic incentives and regulatory approaches, are currently being applied however, for its successful implementation it is critical to understand how land-use decisions are made and how new social, political and economic forces in the future will influence this process.

Life-cycle analysis of energy and greenhouse gas emissions of automotive fuels in India: Part 2-Well-to-wheels analysis

In this second of the two-part study, the results of the Tank-to-Wheels study reported in the first part are combined with Well-to-Tank results in this paper to provide a comprehensive Well-to-Wheels energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions evaluation of automotive fuels in India. The results indicate that liquid fuels derived from petroleum have Well-to-Tank efficiencies in the range of 75-85% with liquefied petroleum gas being the most efficient fuel in the Well-to-Tank stage with 85% efficiency. Electricity has the lowest efficiency of 20% which is mainly attributed due to its dependence on coal and 25.4% losses during transmission and distribution. The complete Well-to-Wheels results show diesel vehicles to be the most efficient among all configurations, specifically the diesel-powered split hybrid electric vehicle. Hydrogen engine configurations are the least efficient due to low efficiency of production of hydrogen from natural gas. Hybridizing electric vehicles reduces the Well-to-Wheels greenhouse gas emissions substantially with split hybrid configuration being the most efficient. Electric vehicles do not offer any significant improvement over gasoline-powered configurations; however a shift towards renewable sources for power generation and reduction in losses during transmission and distribution can make it a feasible option in the future. (C) 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.