El Califato de Touba como factor socio cultural relevante en la conformación de la geopolítica africana subsahariana occidental en el periodo 1960 - 1980

Esta investigación se tiene en cuenta al Califato de Touba ubicado en Senegal como factor relevante para el análisis de dinámicas regionales que dieron respuesta a la conformación geopolítica del África subsahariana occidental durante los años sesentas y ochentas.

Baghdad during the Abbasid caliphate from contemporary Arabic and Persian sources,

Mode of access: Internet.

Without an empire: Muslim mobilization after the caliphate

The Caliphate was a fundamental part of Islamic society for nearly 1300 years. This paper seeks to uncover what effect the removal of this institution had on the mobilization of Muslims in several parts of the world; Turkey, Egypt, and British India. These countries had unique experiences with colonialism, secularism, nationalism, that in many ways conditioned the response of individuals to this momentous occasion. Each country’s reaction had a profound impact on the future trajectory of civil society, and the role of Islam in the lives of its citizens. The conclusions of this paper challenge the monolithic depiction of Islam in the world, and reveal the origins of conflict that these three centers of Muslim power face today. Much of the religious narrative now commonplace in Muslim organizations derive from this pivotal event in world history.

Democracy Concepts of the Fundamentalist Parties of Algeria and Tunisia – Claim and Reality

This article discusses democratic elements in early Islamic sources and in the programs of the Algerian FIS (Front Islamique du Salut) and ANNAHDA in Tunesia. According to historic writings, Islam includes the principles of democratic consensus, consultation, and freedom of opinion, and an understanding that the sources of Islamic jurisdiction are subject to interpretation, that the sharia can be changed, and that religious authorities’ power to issue instructions on worldly matters is limited. These are the type of expectations that fundamentalist parties arouse when they speak of an Islamic caliphate as a state system. Against this background, an examination of the political system proposed until 1992 by the Algerian FIS shows that this system would have resulted in a very restrictive form of Islam. An investigation of the political system of the Tunisian fundamentalist leader Rached al-Ghannouchi reveals that the system he proposes may be designated as an Islamic democracy, since it takes into account separation of powers and pluralism of political parties. The head of state would be subject to the law in the same manner as the people. However, it is no liberal democracy, as he categorically rejects secularism, intends to punish apostates, and is only willing to allow political parties that are based on the religion of Islam. His state would only be a state of those citizens who follow Islam, completely neglecting secularist groups. Social conflicts and unrest are thus predetermined.

Identity, Philosophy, and the Problem of Armenian History in the Sixth Century

History and Identity in the Late Antique Near East gathers together the work of distinguished historians and early career scholars with a broad range of expertise to investigate the significance of newly emerged, or recently resurrected, ethnic identities on the borders of the eastern Mediterranean world. It focuses on the "long late antiquity" from the eve of the Arab conquest of the Roman East to the formation of the Abbasid caliphate. The first half of the book offers papers on the Christian Orient on the cusp of the Islamic invasions. These papers discuss how Christians negotiated the end of Roman power, whether in the selective use of the patristic past to create confessional divisions or the emphasis of the shared philosophical legacy of the Greco-Roman world. The second half of the book considers Muslim attempts to negotiate the pasts of the conquered lands of the Near East, where the Christian histories of Hira or Egypt were used to create distinctive regional identities for Arab settlers. Like the first half, this section investigates the redeployment of a shared history, this time the historical imagination of the Qu'ran and the era of the first caliphs. All the papers in the volume bring together studies of the invention of the past across traditional divides between disciplines, placing the re-assessment of the past as a central feature of the long late antiquity. As a whole, History and Identity in the Late Antique Near East represents a distinctive contribution to recent writing on late antiquity, due to its cultural breadth, its interdisciplinary focus, and its novel definition of late antiquity itself.

Técnicas y materiales de la construcción fortificada altomedieval en el centro de la Península Ibérica: métodos de análisis a través de la arqueología y la historia de la construcción

Esta tesis doctoral tiene como objeto el acercamiento histórico-constructivo a la realidad material de las fortificaciones edificadas en el centro de la Península Ibérica durante los primeros siglos de la Edad Media. El marco geográfico se extiende desde el cauce del río Duero, delimitado por los valles de sus afluentes, el Duratón, al oeste, y el Escalote al este, hasta las cumbres del Sistema Central oriental en su entronque con el Ibérico, para descender por la falda sur de la sierra hasta los valles altos del Lozoya, Jarama y Henares. Siguiendo las demarcaciones actuales, el marco de estudio ocupa parcialmente las provincias de Soria, Guadalajara, Madrid, Segovia, Burgos y Valladolid. Desde un punto de vista cronológico, el espacio temporal se inicia con la conquista musulmana de la Península Ibérica de 711 y culmina con la incorporación definitiva al reino de Castilla de las zonas estudiadas, en torno al año 1150. Se trata de un espacio de transición, tanto desde el punto de vista social como ecológico. Los territorios al sur de la sierra correspondían a los confines septentrionales de la Marca Media de al-Andalus, mientras que la falta norte, los extrema durii, fueron un territorio escasamente poblado y desorganizado, foco de la expansión de los reinos de León y Castilla y zona de conflicto con al-Andalus a principios del siglo X. Un territorio tan amplio y heterogéneo, unido a una compleja evolución histórica y social y la parquedad de las fuentes escritas, ha necesitado de un acercamiento con una metodología de tipo mixto, en la que han convergido las técnicas propias de la documentación histórica, de la arqueología y de la historia de la construcción. Esta metodología parte de un exhaustivo vaciado bibliográfico, tras lo cual se planteó una prospección arqueológica dirigida que permitió realizar un catálogo de elementos fortificados en el área de estudio susceptibles de contener fases altomedievales. Sobre cada uno de los elementos localizados se realizó una toma de datos de tipo gráfico métrico y constructivo. Cruzando los datos recabados en cada edificio con técnicas propias de la estratigrafía e historia de la construcción se identificaron y aislaron las fases de la cronología analizada. Entre las fortificaciones que evidenciaron fases altomedievales y atendiendo a su singularidad, representatividad y calidad estratigráfica se ha profundizado en el análisis de nueve casos de estudio: el conjunto fortificado de Atienza, el castillo de Cogolludo, el recinto amurallado de Buitrago de Lozoya, el castillo de Caracena, la iglesia parroquial de la Inmaculada Concepción de Mezquetillas, la alcazaba de Gormaz, la torre de San Andrés de Sepúlveda, la iglesia parroquial de San Miguel de Ayllón y la fortificación rupestre de Alcolea de las Peñas. La investigación ha servido para dos fines principales. El primero se centra en el aspecto material. En este sentido no solo se ha identificado la presencia o ausencia de fases altomedievales en cado uno de los edificio lo que ha permitido realizar una lectura territorial, la caracterización de las diferentes técnicas y materiales constructivos y valorar la posibilidad de establecer una cronotipología. El segundo se centra en aspectos históricos y sociales. La vinculación de estos restos materiales con la documentación histórica ha devenido en un medio para conocer la historia de las gentes que construyeron estos edificios, la motivación que les llevó a emprender tales proyectos, así como el contexto en el que cada una de estas fortificaciones desempeñó las funciones para las que fue creada. Este estudio ha puesto de manifiesto la ruptura que supuso la ocupación estatal de esta zona por parte del ejército cordobés desde mediados del siglo X, tanto desde el punto de vista social como constructivo. Se ha podido documentar materialmente esta ocupación tras la restauración de Medinaceli, en torno a 946, y la sucedida tras la toma de Sepúlveda por parte de Almanzor en 984, diferenciándose claramente las técnicas constructivas propias de este momento, ejecutadas directamente por talleres foráneos, procedentes de Córdoba y Toledo. La posición estratigráfica de estas fábricas diagnósticas ha permito identificar fases constructivas inmediatamente anteriores y posteriores a este momento. También se ha podido comprobar la hipótesis inicial en relación a la pérdida de conocimientos constructivos durante el final de la Antigüedad y los primeros siglos del medievo en la zona estudiada. La sillería y la explotación de canteras, así como el ciclo productivo del ladrillo por completo, son recuperados sin recurrir a un sustrato tecnológico local, propiciados de manera efímera por la ocupación califal. Cuando se produce el desmembramiento del califato a partir del año 1010 estas técnicas se vuelven a abandonar. A finales del siglo XI y principios del siglo XII se produce un nuevo cambio en la construcción, recuperándose de nuevo estas técnicas de la mano del románico y del establecimiento de la red parroquial diocesana. En una zona y periodo histórico apenas explotado por la investigación, esta tesis doctoral busca no solo establecer una metodología de trabajo sino sentar las bases para futuros estudios, tanto desde el punto de vista particular, profundizando en el estudio constructivo y estratigráfico de cada uno de los elementos recogidos, como en otros aspectos más trasversales. ABSTRACT This doctoral thesis has a constructive historical material approach to the reality of the fortifications built in the center of the Iberian Peninsula during the first centuries of the middle Ages. The geographical framework extends from the Duero´s riverbed, bounded by the valleys of its tributaries, the Duratón on the west, and the Escalote on the east, until to the peaks of the eastern Central System at its connection with the Iberian, to descend the hillside of the mountain range to the high valleys of Lozoya, Jarama and Henares. Following the current demarcations under this framework study, partially cover the provinces of Soria, Guadalajara, Madrid, Segovia, Burgos and Valladolid. From a chronological point of view, the temporal space began with the Muslim conquest of the Iberian Peninsula in 711 A.D and ends with the final incorporation into the Kingdom of Castile in the studied areas, around the year 1150 A.D. It is a transitional gathering point, both socially and ecologically. The southern territories of the Sierra or mountain range corresponded to the northern boundaries of the Middle mark of al- Andalus , while the northern missing, the extrema Durii , were a disorganized sparsely populated territory and point of the expansion of the kingdoms of Leon and Castile and zone of conflict with al- Andalus at the beginning of the tenth century. Such a wide and diverse territory, connected with a complex historical, social evolution and the lack of written sources , has required an approach with a mixed type methodology, which have converged the techniques of historical documentation of the archeology and building history. This methodology comes from a comprehensive bibliographic study, after which an archaeological survey was directed that allowed building a fortified elements ‘catalog in the study area likely to contain high medieval period phases were raised. On each of the elements located one metric data collection and constructive graphic type was performed. Checking against the data collected in each building with its own history of stratigraphy and construction techniques and finally, they were identified and isolated the timing analysis phases. Among the early medieval fortifications that showed high period Medieval phases and according to its uniqueness , representativeness and stratigraphy’s quality of the nine case studies : the fortified complex of Atienza, Cogolludo Castle, the Buitrago de Lozoya´s walled enclosure , the Caracena´s castle , the Mezquetillas´ parish church, the Gormaz´s fortress, the San Andres toser in Sepulveda, the church of San Miguel de Ayllón and the Alcolea de las Peñas´ rock fortress. This research study has served two main purposes. The first focuses on the material side. In this sense it does not only identified the presence or absence of early medieval period phases in each one of the building, which has allowed a territorial reading and the characterization of the different construction techniques and materials, but it also assess the possibility of establishing a chrono–typology. The second focuses on historical and social aspects. The bound of these materials remains with the historical documentation has become a means to know the history of the people who built these buildings, the motivation that led them to undertake such projects as well as the context in which each of these fortifications played the functions for which it was created. This study has revealed the breach that led to the state occupation of the Cordovan army in this area by since mid-tenth century, from the social point of view and also from the structural one. It has been materially document this occupation after the restoration of Medinaceli, around 946, and succeeded after taking Sepulveda by Almanzor in 984, clearly differentiating their own building techniques currently implemented directly by foreign workshops, from Cordova and Toledo. The stratigraphic position of these factories has made it possible to identify earlier and later construction phases at this time. It has also been able to verify the initial hypothesis in relation with constructive knowledge loss during late antiquity and early medieval centuries in the studied area. Also ashlar, masonries as well as the brick production is recovered without resorting to a local technological substrate, fleetingly brought about by the Caliphate occupation. When the dismemberment of the Caliphate is produced from the year 1010 these techniques were abandoned again. In the late eleventh and early twelfth century these techniques are recovered from Romanesque and a new change came, also from the establishment of the diocesan parish network. In one historical period that has been hardly exploited by research, this thesis seeks not only to establish a working methodology but lay the groundwork for future studies, both from the particular point of view, paying special attention in the constructive and stratigraphic studies of each of the evidence collected , and additionally in other more transversal aspects.

Noticias de ataques y destrucciones en Orihuela durante el período andalusí (ss. VIII-XIII)

Tras resumirse "Los elementos esenciales de la trama urbana de Orihuela", se estudian los principales hechos históricos durante el período islámico de la ciudad de Orihuela "s. VIII-XIII) en que hay noticia de ataques militares a la ciudad y destrucciones : El ataque de los normandos a Orihuela en 245 H ./859 e.C.; Aceifa del califa ‘Abd al-Raḥmān III al-Nāṣir contra Orihuela y sus rebeldes; La "fitnat al-barbar" o guerra civil que acabó con el califato andalusí; El terremoto posterior a 440 H/1048-9 e.C. que asoló toda la vega del río Segura y finalmente la conquista cristiana de Orihuela. Como conclusiones para el estudio del urbanismo musulmán de Orihuela se demuestra que solo hubo destrucciones en el trazado urbano de importancia como resultado del mencionado terremoto que asoló y destruyó las ciudades de Murcia, Orihuela y toda la Vega Baja del río Segura.

Cerámica e Islamización: el origen de la tradición alfarera

La cerámica es uno de los testimonios arqueológicos más abundantes y reconocibles. Generalmente se le atribuye un importante valor histórico en tanto que informa sobre procesos socioeconómicos de gran importancia y constituye un significativo referente cronológico. No obstante, son varias las perspectivas de estudio ceramológico: sus formas de producción, las formas de distribución y comercialización y las pautas de consumo, etc. Todas ellas arrojan luz sobre aspectos que permiten estudiar las sociedades del pasado. En el caso que nos ocupa queremos discutir el valor de la cerámica en la comprensión del proceso de islamización social, es decir de integración en un nuevo sistema social y cultural. El siglo VII marca en el Mediterráneo occidental el final de un sistema económico de ámbito “mundial”, capaz de producir y distribuir cerámicas altamente estandarizadas y especializadas por todo el ámbito mediterráneo. El siglo X permite reconocer la reconstrucción de los mercados y la uniformización productiva y formal, que refleja la nueva sociedad representada en el Califato. Entre ambos extremos se abre un periodo interesante y complejo, plagado de luces y sombras, que permite reconocer tanto los procesos de reestructuración económica como la generalización de nuevos patrones culturales. En este trabajo se intentarán plantear los temas más importantes y novedosos sobre la cerámica de los siglos VII a X, a partir de varios trabajos recientes, leyendo a través de la cerámica el proceso de islamización.

State-building in Iraq since 2003: the Challenges and Lessons. Jean Monnet Occasional Paper No. 12/2014

Introduction. In 2003, Iraq was invaded by the US coalition forces that ousted Saddam Hussein’s regime from power before occupying the whole country. The intension, declared by the then American George W. Bush, was to ‘build a decent and democratic society at the centre of the Middle East’ that ‘will become a place of progress and peace.’1 In 2014, three years after the withdrawal of the last American soldier, however, it is difficult to overestimate or exaggerate what is at stake. National unity and territorial integrity have never been so seriously threatened since the country is experiencing the internal fighting in its modern history. Many parts of Iraq, including the northern oil city of Kirkuk, long claimed as an integral part of the semi-autonomous region of Kurdistan, are out of the control of the central government. Large areas in the north including the strategic city of Mosul were seized by the fighters of the Islamic State, an Al-Qaeda offshoot, formerly known as ISIS, who threatened to invade the Kurdistan region before being attacked by airstrikes by the US. They proclaimed a caliphate on both sides of the border with Syria, where they also control vast territory.

The Middle East in the shadow of the Islamic State. OSW Point of View Number 52, August 2015

Since June 2014, Islamic State (IS) has been regarded as the principal security threat in the Middle East and one of the most important problems for European and global security. Islamic State, which for many years was just one of many terror organisations with links to al-Qaeda, has succeeded in achieving much more than other similar organisations: it has taken over control of large swathes of territory in Syria and Iraq by military means, created its own para-state structures in that area, and become the greatest civilisational challenge for the region in a century as it established a self-proclaimed caliphate and credibly pledged to expand further on a global scale. Those successes have been accompanied by widely publicised acts of systemic brutality which meets the definition of crimes against humanity. One outcome of these developments is the emergence of an exotic informal alliance to combatthe Islamic State, which has brought together all the states from the Middle East and many from beyond the region. However, contrary to what could have been predicted, after almost a year of the declared war against IS, the Caliphate still holds most of the ground it gained in 2014.

Throne Leg in the form of a Griffin

Metalwork, Iran, Umayyad Caliphate; 1 ft. 10 7/16 in.x 3 27/64 in.x 7 23/64 in.; cast and chased bronze

Bowl

Pottery, Islamic, Abbasid Caliphate; 2 33/64 in.x 7 43/64 in.; earthenware; polychrome luster-painted on opaque white glaze

Throne Leg in the form of a Griffin, outer face

Metalwork, Iran, Umayyad Caliphate; 1 ft. 10 7/16 in.x 3 27/64 in.x 7 23/64 in.; cast and chased bronze

Maqālah fī Ijmāl al-kalām ʻalá masʾalat al-khilāfah bayna ahl al-Islām [microform] /

Microfilm.