NDVI and vegetation phenology dynamics under the influence of sunshine duration on the Tibetan plateau

Climate change has significantly influenced vegetation dynamics on the Tibetan Plateau (TP). Past research mainly focused on vegetation responses to temperature variation and water stress, but the influence of sunshine duration on NDVI and vegetation phenology on the TP is not well understood. In this study, NDVI time series from 1982-2008 were used to retrieve spatiotemporal vegetation dynamics on the TP. Empirical orthogonal function (EOF) analysis was conducted to understand the spatiotemporal variations of NDVI. The Start of Season (SOS) was estimated from NDVI time series with a local threshold method. The first EOF, accounting for 35.1% of NDVI variations on the TP, indicates that NDVI variations are larger in areas with shorter sunshine duration. The needle-leaved forest and shrub in the southeastern TP are more sensitive to sunshine duration anomalies (p < 0.01) than broad-leaved forest, steppe, and meadow due to spatial and altitudinal distribution of sunshine duration and vegetation types. The decrease in sunshine duration for the growing season on the TP has resulted in a decreased NDVI trend in some areas of southeastern TP (p ranging from 0.32-0.05 with threshold ranging from 0.05 to 0.25) in spite of the overall NDVI increase. SOS dynamics in most parts of the TP were mainly related to temperature variability, with precipitation and sunshine duration playing a role in a few regions. This study enhances our understanding of vegetation responses to climatic change on the TP.

Reconstruction of past UV radiation

Solar ultraviolet (UV) radiation has a broad range of effects concerning life on Earth. Soon after the mid-1980s, it was recognized that the stratospheric ozone content was declining over large areas of the globe. Because the stratospheric ozone layer protects life on Earth from harmful UV radiation, this lead to concern about possible changes in the UV radiation due to anthropogenic activity. Initiated by this concern, many stations for monitoring of the surface UV radiation were founded in the late 1980s and early 1990s. As a consequence, there is an apparent lack of information on UV radiation further in the past: measurements cannot tell us how the UV radiation levels have changed on time scales of, for instance, several decades. The aim of this thesis was to improve our understanding of past variations in the surface UV radiation by developing techniques for UV reconstruction. Such techniques utilize commonly available meteorological data together with measurements of the total ozone column for reconstructing, or estimating, the amount of UV radiation reaching Earth's surface in the past. Two different techniques for UV reconstruction were developed. Both are based on first calculating the clear-sky UV radiation using a radiative transfer model. The clear-sky value is then corrected for the effect of clouds based on either (i) sunshine duration or (ii) pyranometer measurements. Both techniques account also for the variations in the surface albedo caused by snow, whereas aerosols are included as a typical climatological aerosol load. Using these methods, long time series of reconstructed UV radiation were produced for five European locations, namely Sodankylä and Jokioinen in Finland, Bergen in Norway, Norrköping in Sweden, and Davos in Switzerland. Both UV reconstruction techniques developed in this thesis account for the greater part of the factors affecting the amount of UV radiation reaching the Earth's surface. Thus, they are considered reliable and trustworthy, as suggested also by the good performance of the methods. The pyranometer-based method shows better performance than the sunshine-based method, especially for daily values. For monthly values, the difference between the performances of the methods is smaller, indicating that the sunshine-based method is roughly as good as the pyranometer-based for assessing long-term changes in the surface UV radiation. The time series of reconstructed UV radiation produced in this thesis provide new insight into the past UV radiation climate and how the UV radiation has varied throughout the years. Especially the sunshine-based UV time series, extending back to 1926 and 1950 at Davos and Sodankylä, respectively, also put the recent changes driven by the ozone decline observed over the last few decades into perspective. At Davos, the reconstructed UV over the period 1926-2003 shows considerable variation throughout the entire period, with high values in the mid-1940s, early 1960s, and in the 1990s. Moreover, the variations prior to 1980 were found to be caused primarily by variations in the cloudiness, while the increase of 4.5 %/decade over the period 1979-1999 was supported by both the decline in the total ozone column and changes in the cloudiness. Of the other stations included in this work, both Sodankylä and Norrköping show a clear increase in the UV radiation since the early 1980s (3-4 %/decade), driven primarily by changes in the cloudiness, and to a lesser extent by the diminution of the total ozone. At Jokioinen, a weak increase was found, while at Bergen there was no considerable overall change in the UV radiation level.

次生林林窗光环境时空特征及其对下层植被的影响

林窗是森林中经常发生的重要中小尺度干扰，在森林天然更新中起着重要作用。灌木和草本植物通过与乔木幼苗竞争林窗资源（尤其是光）而影响林窗树种更新，因此，研究林窗光环境时空特征及其与下层植被关系对揭示林窗树种更新机制具有重要意义。然而，林窗光环境的时空异质性及有效测量方法的缺乏导致这方面研究很少。本研究提出了林窗立体结构的相片测量法；基于林窗立体结构、坡度和坡向改进了目前广泛用于估测林窗光环境的林窗光指数(gap light index, GLI)模型，并提出了林窗内任意位置最大光照时长(potential sunshine duration, PSD)的计算方法；采用改进的GLI和PSD分析了东北次生林3个不同大小林窗（110，270，510 m2）及其对应的9个模拟林窗中2007年光环境的时空特征；通过在12个人工林窗中连续3年的植被调查，研究了林窗形成后前3年下层木本和草本植物对4个光强梯度的响应，主要结论如下： 1. 林窗立体结构和光环境的测量方法：1) 等角椭圆扇形法计算的林窗面积比目前使用较多的等角多边形法具有更高的精度；2) 半球面影像法可以测量林窗面积和形状，且精度较高；3) 双半球面影像法不仅可以测量林窗面积、形状，还可以测量任意方位林窗边缘木高度；4) 改进的GLI可以快速、精确计算林窗任意位置的直射光和散射光；5) PSD可用于分析林窗光照强度时空特征。 2. 东北次生林林窗光环境时空特征：1) 水平空间结构（地面层）：光环境空间异质性高，最大值位于林窗北部，坡向对光分布格局影响大而对光强影响小，光强随林窗面积的增大和边缘木高度的降低而增加；2) 垂直空间结构（林窗南北轴）：不同高度层光强最大值均位于林窗南北轴中心偏北，南北轴距地面越高光强最大值则越靠近轴中心；光强随距地面高度下降而衰减，最大衰退速率点位于轴中心偏南，靠近该点光强衰退线呈指数形，远离该点则趋于直线形；3) 光成分特征（地面层南北轴）：南坡林窗整个南北轴上直射光大于散射光，北坡模拟林窗南半轴散射光大于直射光，而北半轴相反；南坡林窗中直射光的均值及其变化范围都比其对应的北坡模拟林窗大，然而，坡向对散射光影响不大；南坡林窗和北坡模拟林窗北半轴的全光和直射光均比南半轴大，但散射光没有这种显著的规律；4) 时间特征：不同月份PSD在相同大小林窗中分布格局十分相似，6月份林窗中被光照射面积和PSD均值最大，而10月份最小；各月PSD在南北轴上从南到北逐渐增加，在东西轴上自西向东缓慢增加。 3. 林窗早期下层植被对光强梯度的响应：1) 木本植物物种丰富度随光照强度的增加而增高，且在林窗形成后的第2和3年均存在显著相关性；2) DCA排序第一轴表明，木本植物物种组成仅第1年在4个光强梯度间存在显著差异，而在各年间存在显著差异；草本植物物种组成在4个光强梯度上存在显著差异，但在各年间不存在显著差异；3) 木本植物生物体积(biovolume)随光强梯度升高而增加，而植株密度不存在显著变化；生物体积逐年增加，平均年增长率为20.3%，植株密度逐年下降，平均年减少率为30.0%；4) 草本层盖度和高度在4个光强梯度间均不存在显著差异，但在林窗形成后的第2、3年均显著比第1年大。

Scorch marks from the sky

Daily sunshine duration is commonly reported at weather stations. Beyond the basic duration report, more information is available from scorched cards of Campbell-Stokes sunshine recorders, such as the estimation of direct-beam solar irradiance. Sunshine cards therefore potentially provide information on sky state, as inferred from solar-radiation data. Some sites have been operational since the late 19th century, hence sunshine cards potentially provide underexploited historical data on sky state. Sunshine cards provide an example of an archive source yielding data beyond the measurements originally sought.

Estimativas da radiação global incidente em superfícies inclinadas com base na razáo de insolação

Estimating equations of global radiation based on the sunshine duration were proposed for horizontal surface and with inclination of 12.85, 22.85 and 32.85° facing the North in Botucatu, SP, Brazil, in monthly, seasonal and annual groupings of data. Simple linear correlations were applied (for definition of the linear and angular coefficients of Angstrom-Prescott model), in a database measured in all three inclinations in different periods (22.85°: 04/1998 to 07/2001; 12.85°: 08/2011 to 02/2003; and 32.85°: 03/2003 to 12/2007) concomitant with horizontal measures and sunshine duration. The statistical performance of the model was analysed by the means absolute error (MBE), the square root of the mean square error (RMSE) and the index adjustment (d). The minimum global radiation transmissivity varied from 14.35% in August (12.85°) to 27.86% in December (32.85°) and the maximum transmissivity ranged between 62.10% and 78.90%, for June (32.85°) and December (12.85°). Increasing the angle of inclination surface increased the scattering and decreased the index of adjustment and performance. The worst results were found for application of the seasonal and annual models in the months of autumn and winter for 32.85° (RMSE below 42.93% and adjustment superior to 0.4693).

Estimativas das radiações direta e difusa em superfícies inclinadas com base na razáo de insolação

Statistical equations were obtained and evaluated with annual, seasonal and monthly data groupings for estimates of direct and diffuse components of solar radiation based on the sunshine duration (ratio of sunshine and photoperiod) incident on horizontal and inclined surfaces to 12.85, 22.85 and 32.85° with facing to North, in Botucatu, SP. The ratios between the two components and radiation at the top of the atmosphere were used, in a database whose inclinations were measured in three different periods (22.85°: 04/1998 to 07/2001; 12.85°: 08/2011 to 02/2003; and 32.85°: 03/2003 to 12/2007) and concomitant with horizontal measures and sunshine duration. The correlations showed a linear and second degree polynomial behavior for the direct and diffuse radiation, with higher coefficients of determination in periods of low variation in the coverage of the sky (cloudiness). The highest values of the direct and diffuse radiation were found in winter and summer, respectively for all surfaces evaluated. The increase in the inclination angle decreased the performance of equations in all groups of data with increase in scattering and decrease in index of the adjustment, however, the monthly equations allowed better performance for the two components.

Estimativa das radiações ultravioleta (UV), fotossintéticamente ativa (PAR) e infravermelha (IV) em função da razão de insolação

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq)

Estimativa da radiação solar global em estufa de polietileno a partir do brilho solar

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq)

The role of clouds in improving the regression model for hourly values of diffuse solar radiation

The study introduces a new regression model developed to estimate the hourly values of diffuse solar radiation at the surface. The model is based on the clearness index and diffuse fraction relationship, and includes the effects of cloud (cloudiness and cloud type), traditional meteorological variables (air temperature, relative humidity and atmospheric pressure observed at the surface) and air pollution (concentration of particulate matter observed at the surface). The new model is capable of predicting hourly values of diffuse solar radiation better than the previously developed ones (R-2 = 0.93 and RMSE = 0.085). A simple version with a large applicability is proposed that takes into consideration cloud effects only (cloudiness and cloud height) and shows a R-2 = 0.92. (C) 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Die Rolle der Globalstrahlung im Klimasystem Südwestdeutschlands

Die Untersuchungen umfassen die Periode 1981 – 2000 und basieren hauptsächlich auf Daten des Deutschen Wetterdienstes (DWD). Relativwerte der Globalstrahlung beziehen sich auf die Rayleigh-Atmosphäre. Das Regressionsmodell nach Angström ermöglicht die Erweiterung des Meßnetzes. In linearer und nichtlinearer Regression und Korrelation ist die Globalstrahlung entweder abhängige (Sonnenscheindauer, Bewölkung) oder unabhängige Variable (Lufttemperatur, Bodentemperatur). Ihre Intensität in Abhängigkeit von Großwetterlagen, Großwettertypen und Luftmassen wird diskutiert. Diesbezüglich werden mit der Linearen Diskriminanzanalyse ähnliche Großwetterlagen und Stationen in signifikant unterschiedenen Gruppen zusammengefaßt, getrennt nach Sommer- und Winterhalbjahr. Abhängig von der Zeit betrachtet, enthalten Globalstrahlung, direkte und diffuse Sonnenstrahlung, Lufttemperatur, Bewölkung und Niederschlag signifikante zyklische Variationen, die gegebenenfalls klimatologisch relevant sind. Weiteren Aufschluß ergeben deshalb die Zeitreihenanalysen. Autokorrelation-Spektralanalysen (ASA) der genannten Variablen werden in integrierten Spektren dargestellt. Hinweise auf die zeitliche Konstanz signifikanter Varianzmaxima enthalten die Spektren der dynamischen (gleitenden) ASA.

Daily ozone cycle in the stratosphere: global, regional and seasonal behaviour modelled with the Whole Atmosphere Community Climate Model

The Whole Atmosphere Community Climate Model (WACCM) is utilised to study the daily ozone cycle and underlying photochemical and dynamical processes. The analysis is focused on the daily ozone cycle in the middle stratosphere at 5 hPa where satellite-based trend estimates of stratospheric ozone are most biased by diurnal sampling effects and drifting satellite orbits. The simulated ozone cycle shows a minimum after sunrise and a maximum in the late afternoon. Further, a seasonal variation of the daily ozone cycle in the stratosphere was found. Depending on season and latitude, the peak-to-valley difference of the daily ozone cycle varies mostly between 3 and 5% (0.4 ppmv) with respect to the midnight ozone volume mixing ratio. The maximal variation of 15% (0.8 ppmv) is found at the polar circle in summer. The global pattern of the strength of the daily ozone cycle is mainly governed by the solar zenith angle and the sunshine duration. In addition, we find synoptic-scale variations in the strength of the daily ozone cycle. These variations are often anti-correlated to regional temperature anomalies and are due to the temperature dependence of the rate coefficients k2 and k3 of the Chapman cycle reactions. Further, the NOx catalytic cycle counteracts the accumulation of ozone during daytime and leads to an anti-correlation between anomalies in NOx and the strength of the daily ozone cycle. Similarly, ozone recombines with atomic oxygen which leads to an anti-correlation between anomalies in ozone abundance and the strength of the daily ozone cycle. At higher latitudes, an increase of the westerly (easterly) wind cause a decrease (increase) in the sunshine duration of an air parcel leading to a weaker (stronger) daily ozone cycle.