Semiconductor detectors in medicine, March 8-9, 1973, presented by Nuclear Medicine Division, Department of Radiology, University of California School of Medicine and Continuing Education in Health Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, California, supported in part by KeVex Corporation, Burlingame, California [et al.

Mode of access: Internet.

Estudo de metodologias de controle de qualidade do Mo-99 utilizado no preparo de geradores de Mo-99/Tc-99m

Dissertação (Mestrado em Tecnologia Nuclear)

Development of germanium/silicon integration for near infrared detection

Silicon (Si) is the base material for electronic technologies and is emerging as a very attractive platform for photonic integrated circuits (PICs). PICs allow optical systems to be made more compact with higher performance than discrete optical components. Applications for PICs are in the area of fibre-optic communication, biomedical devices, photovoltaics and imaging. Germanium (Ge), due to its suitable bandgap for telecommunications and its compatibility with Si technology is preferred over III-V compounds as an integrated on-chip detector at near infrared wavelengths. There are two main approaches for Ge/Si integration: through epitaxial growth and through direct wafer bonding. The lattice mismatch of ~4.2% between Ge and Si is the main problem of the former technique which leads to a high density of dislocations while the bond strength and conductivity of the interface are the main challenges of the latter. Both result in trap states which are expected to play a critical role. Understanding the physics of the interface is a key contribution of this thesis. This thesis investigates Ge/Si diodes using these two methods. The effects of interface traps on the static and dynamic performance of Ge/Si avalanche photodetectors have been modelled for the first time. The thesis outlines the original process development and characterization of mesa diodes which were fabricated by transferring a ~700 nm thick layer of p-type Ge onto n-type Si using direct wafer bonding and layer exfoliation. The effects of low temperature annealing on the device performance and on the conductivity of the interface have been investigated. It is shown that the diode ideality factor and the series resistance of the device are reduced after annealing. The carrier transport mechanism is shown to be dominated by generation–recombination before annealing and by direct tunnelling in forward bias and band-to-band tunnelling in reverse bias after annealing. The thesis presents a novel technique to realise photodetectors where one of the substrates is thinned by chemical mechanical polishing (CMP) after bonding the Si-Ge wafers. Based on this technique, Ge/Si detectors with remarkably high responsivities, in excess of 3.5 A/W at 1.55 μm at −2 V, under surface normal illumination have been measured. By performing electrical and optical measurements at various temperatures, the carrier transport through the hetero-interface is analysed by monitoring the Ge band bending from which a detailed band structure of the Ge/Si interface is proposed for the first time. The above unity responsivity of the detectors was explained by light induced potential barrier lowering at the interface. To our knowledge this is the first report of light-gated responsivity for vertically illuminated Ge/Si photodiodes. The wafer bonding approach followed by layer exfoliation or by CMP is a low temperature wafer scale process. In principle, the technique could be extended to other materials such as Ge on GaAs, or Ge on SOI. The unique results reported here are compatible with surface normal illumination and are capable of being integrated with CMOS electronics and readout units in the form of 2D arrays of detectors. One potential future application is a low-cost Si process-compatible near infrared camera.

A function using cubic splines for the analysis of alpha--particles spectra from silicon detectors

A function based on the characteristics of the alpha-particle lines obtained with silicon semiconductor detectors and modi"ed by using cubic splines is proposed to parametrize the shape of the peaks. A reduction in the number of parameters initially considered in other proposals was carried out in order to improve the stability of the optimization process. It was imposed by the boundary conditions for the cubic splines term. This function was then able to describe peaks with highly anomalous shapes with respect to those expected from this type of detector. Some criteria were implemented to correctly determine the area of the peaks and their errors. Comparisons with other well-established functions revealed excellent agreement in the "nal values obtained from both "ts. Detailed studies on reliability of the "tting results were carried out and the application of the function is proposed. Although the aim was to correct anomalies in peak shapes, the peaks showing the expected shapes were also well "tted. Accordingly, the validity of the proposal is quite general in the analysis of alpha-particle spectrometry with semiconductor detectors.

Hyperfine interactions and nuclear structure

An automatic experimental apparatus for perturbed angular correlation measurements, capable of incorporating Ge(Li) detectors as well as scintillation counters, has been constructed.

The gamma-gamma perturbed angular correlation technique has been used to measure magnetic dipole moments of several nuclear excited states in the osmium transition region. In addition, the hyperfine magnetic fields, experienced by nuclei of 'impurity' atoms embedded in ferromagnetic host lattices, have been determined for several '4d' and '5d' impurity atoms.

The following magnetic dipole moments were obtained in the osmium transition region μ_2⁺(¹⁹⁰Os) = 0.54 ± 0.06 nm μ_4⁺(¹⁹⁰Os) = 0.88 ± 0.48 nm μ_2⁺(¹⁹²Os) = 0.56 ± 0.08 nm μ_2⁺(¹⁹²Pt) = 0.56 ± 0.06 nm μ_2^+’(¹⁹²Pt) = 0.62 ± 0.14 nm.

These results are discussed in terms of three collective nuclear models; the cranking model, the rotation-vibration model and the pairing-plus-quadrupole model. The measurements are found to be in satisfactory agreement with collective descriptions of low lying nuclear states in this region.

The following hyperfine magnetic fields of 'impurities' in ferromagnetic hosts were determined; H_int(Cd Ni) = - (64.0 ± 0.8)kG H_int(Hg Fe) = - (440 ± 105)kG H_int(Hg Co) = - (370 ± 78)kG H_int(Hg Ni) = - (86 ± 22)kG H_int(Tl Fe) = - (185 ± 70)kG H_int(Tl Co) = - (90 ± 35)kG H_int(Ra Fe) = - (105 ± 20)kG H_int(Ra Co) = - (80 ± 16)kG H_int(Ra Ni) = - (30 ± 10)kG, where in H_int(AB); A is the impurity atom embedded in the host lattice B. No quantitative theory is available for comparison. However, these results are found to obey the general systematics displayed by these fields. Several mechanisms which may be responsible for the appearance of these fields are mentioned.

Finally, a theoretical expression for time-differential perturbed angular correlation measurement, which duplicates experimental conditions is developed and its importance in data analysis is discussed.

Mesures et analyses de la luminosité d’ATLAS grâce aux détecteurs MPX

Medipix2 (MPX) sont des détecteurs semi-conducteurs au silicium montés sur 256x256 pixels. Chaque pixel a une aire de 55x55μm2. L’aire active d’un détecteur MPX est d’environ 2 cm2. Avec deux modes de détection, un seuil et un temps d’exposition ajustables, leur utilisation peut être optimisée pour une analyse spécifique. Seize de ces détecteurs sont présentement installés dans l’expérience ATLAS (A Toroidal LHC ApparatuS) au CERN (Organisation Européenne pour la Recherche Nucléaire). Ils mesurent en temps réel le champ de radiation dû aux collisions proton-proton, au point d’interaction IP1 (Point d’Interaction 1) du LHC (Grand Collisionneur d’Hadrons). Ces mesures ont divers buts comme par exemple la mesure du champ de neutrons dans la caverne d’ATLAS. Le réseau de détecteurs MPX est complètement indépendant du détecteur ATLAS. Le groupe ATLAS-Montréal s’est intéressé à l’analyse des données récoltées par ces détecteurs pour calculer une valeur de la luminosité du LHC au point de collision des faisceaux, autour duquel est construit le détecteur ATLAS. Cette valeur est déterminée indépendamment de la luminosité mesurée par les divers sous-détecteurs d’ATLAS dédiés spécifiquement à la mesure de la luminosité. Avec l’augmentation de la luminosité du LHC les détecteurs MPX les plus proches du point d’interaction détectent un grand nombre de particules dont les traces sont impossibles à distinguer sur les images ("frames") obtenues, à cause de leur recouvrement. Les paramètres de mesure de certains de ces détecteurs ont été optimisés pour des mesures de luminosité. Une méthode d’analyse des données permet de filtrer les pixels bruyants et de convertir les données des images, qui correspondent à des temps d’exposition propres aux détecteurs MPX, en valeur de luminosité pour chaque LumiBlock. Un LumiBlock est un intervalle de temps de mesure propre au détecteur ATLAS. On a validé les mesures de luminosité premièrement en comparant les résultats obtenus par différents détecteurs MPX, et ensuite en comparant les valeurs de luminosité relevées à celles obtenues par les sous-détecteurs d’ATLAS dédiés spécifiquement à la mesure de la luminosité.

Avaliação da radioatividade natural em mármores e granitos comerciais do estado do Espírito Santo

Tese (Doutorado em Tecnologia Nuclear)