The struggle for protection of environmental refugees: who's responsibility? Discourses from the United Nations and Non-governmental organizations

This thesis identifies, examines and problematizes some of the discourses that have so far come to light on the issue of protection for environmental refugees. By analyzing the discourses produced by the United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and two non-governmental organizations - the Environmental Justice Foundation (EJF) and Equity and Justice Working Group Bangladesh (EquityBD), I examine the struggling discourses that have emerged about how protection for environmental refugees has been interpreted. To do this, I rely on Ernesto Laclau and Chantal Mouffe's theory and method of discourse analysis. The results show that responsibilization is the main point of struggle in the discussions on the protection of environmental refugees. As a floating signifier, it was utilized by the discourses produced by the UNCHR and the selected NGOs in contingent ways and with different political objectives. The UNHCR discourse responsibilized both the environmental refugees for their own protection and the individual states. The EJF and EquityBD, by contrast, allocated responsibility for the protection of environmental refugees to the international community. These contingent understandings of responsibilization necessitated different justifications. While the EJF discourse relied on humanitarianism for the assistance of environmental refugees, the EquityBD discourse constructed a rights based, more permanent solution. The humanitarian based discourse of the EJF was found to be inextricably linked with the neoliberal discourse produced by the UNHCR. Both these discourses encouraged environmental refugees to stay in their homelands, undermining the politics of protection. Another way in which protection was undermined was by UNHCR's discourse on securitization. In this context, climate change induced displacement became threat to developed countries, the global economy and transnational classes. The struggling discourses about who/what has been allocated responsibility for the protection of environmental refugees also meant that identities of the displaced be constructed in specific ways. While the UNHCR discourse constructed as voluntary migrants and predators, the EJF and EquityBD discourses portrayed them as victims. However, even though the EJF discourse constructed them as victims, their reliance on humanitarianism could also be interpreted as a way of giving the environmental refugee a predator like identity. These discourses on responsibilization and identity formation clashed with each other in the aim of achieving a hegemonic position in discussions and debates about the protection of environmental refugees.

The struggle for protection of environmental refugees: who's responsibility? Discourses from the United Nations and Non-governmental organizations

This thesis identifies, examines and problematizes some of the discourses that have so far come to light on the issue of protection for environmental refugees. By analyzing the discourses produced by the United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and two non-governmental organizations - the Environmental Justice Foundation (EJF) and Equity and Justice Working Group Bangladesh (EquityBD), I examine the struggling discourses that have emerged about how protection for environmental refugees has been interpreted. To do this, I rely on Ernesto Laclau and Chantal Mouffe's theory and method of discourse analysis. The results show that responsibilization is the main point of struggle in the discussions on the protection of environmental refugees. As a floating signifier, it was utilized by the discourses produced by the UNCHR and the selected NGOs in contingent ways and with different political objectives. The UNHCR discourse responsibilized both the environmental refugees for their own protection and the individual states. The EJF and EquityBD, by contrast, allocated responsibility for the protection of environmental refugees to the international community. These contingent understandings of responsibilization necessitated different justifications. While the EJF discourse relied on humanitarianism for the assistance of environmental refugees, the EquityBD discourse constructed a rights based, more permanent solution. The humanitarian based discourse of the EJF was found to be inextricably linked with the neoliberal discourse produced by the UNHCR. Both these discourses encouraged environmental refugees to stay in their homelands, undermining the politics of protection. Another way in which protection was undermined was by UNHCR's discourse on securitization. In this context, climate change induced displacement became threat to developed countries, the global economy and transnational classes. The struggling discourses about who/what has been allocated responsibility for the protection of environmental refugees also meant that identities of the displaced be constructed in specific ways. While the UNHCR discourse constructed as voluntary migrants and predators, the EJF and EquityBD discourses portrayed them as victims. However, even though the EJF discourse constructed them as victims, their reliance on humanitarianism could also be interpreted as a way of giving the environmental refugee a predator like identity. These discourses on responsibilization and identity formation clashed with each other in the aim of achieving a hegemonic position in discussions and debates about the protection of environmental refugees.

Transnational organised environmental crime

Transnational environmental crime must become a government priority, as organised criminal networks continue to exploit the environment with unprecedented profits. Such earnings come at a substantial social, economic and environmental expense for communities and their livelihoods. Indeed, organised environmental crime is identified by the United Nations as a key factor in the impoverishment, displacement and violent conflicts affecting millions of people — notably in developing societies.2 It is widely recognised that organised environmental crime syndicates, motivated by substantial financial rewards, continue to flourish and expand in disadvantaged societies with porous borders, where corruption is widespread and regulation is poor. The theft of biodiversity and the demise of animal species and habitats have resulted not only in financial loss, but also in an increase in “environmental refugees” — people dislocated and forced to migrate due to loss of livelihoods.

Réfugiés climatiques : statut et traitement

L’état actuel des travaux ne rend pas compte de l’ampleur des questions philosophiques et des enjeux moraux suscités par l’apparition sur la scène internationale des réfugiés climatiques. Il est pourtant urgent de leur accorder une protection à travers des accords internationaux. Les philosophes qui se sont penchés sur le sujet ont été induits en erreur tant par la multiplicité des termes employés que leur absence de définitions. Ce travail critique la tendance actuelle des militants écologistes à vouloir englober des populations aux problèmes divers sous le terme de réfugié. Banaliser l’emploi du terme de réfugié n’est pas seulement fallacieux mais également dangereux. A terme, les militants se tourneront vers la Convention de Genève pour revendiquer que les populations déplacées soient considérées comme des réfugiés. Or la Convention de Genève n’est pas un outil adéquat pour remédier au sort de ces populations. De plus, on ne peut élargir le statut de réfugié pour inclure ces populations sans risquer de perdre sa crédibilité et son efficience. Suivre la pente qu’emprunte les militants nous mènerait à accorder le même traitement aux réfugiés climatiques et aux réfugiés politiques, ce qui est une erreur. Notre hypothèse est que les habitants des petits pays insulaires à l’inverse des autres populations ont besoin d’un élargissement de la Convention de Genève. Nous arguerons que nous avons des devoirs et des responsabilités envers eux que nous n’avons pas envers les réfugiés politiques. Pour défendre ce point de vue, il faut définir clairement ce qu’est un réfugié climatique et justifier cette appellation. Nous devrons donc confronter la notion de réfugié climatique à d’autres notions concurrentes. Une fois les termes définis, nous envisagerons les enjeux éthiques à travers le prisme des questions de justice globale. Nous verrons que pour déterminer qui devrait remédier au sort des réfugiés climatique, il ne suffit pas de se référer à la responsabilité causale. Cela nous mènera à arguer que bien que séduisant, le principe pollueur-payeur n’est pas un outil adéquat pour guider la réflexion. Nous serons également amenés à nous interroger sur la pertinence d’une institution environnementale globale.

Revisión del estado del arte del derecho internacional frente al problema de los refugiados ambientales en el mundo (1985-2010)

El presente trabajo de investigación tiene como objetivo estudiar el papel del Derecho Internacional Público frente a la problemática actual de los Refugiados Ambientales, una nueva categoría de desplazamiento que se ha convertido en un tema latente dentro de la Comunidad Internacional. Así, el Estado del Arte será el tipo de investigación utilizado para realizar una revisión bibliográfica frente al tema y de esta manera demostrar la necesidad de realizar la inserción del concepto de Refugiado Ambiental dentro del sistema de protección internacional para el refugiado, representado en la Convención sobre el Estatuto de los Refugiados de 1951, el cual fue el primer instrumento de protección correspondiente a este tema. Por tanto se evaluarán casos emblemáticos a nivel mundial donde se demuestra cada una de las incidencias y consecuencias producidas y la desventaja que tiene el refugiado ambiental frente al refugiado convencional, y de esta manera recalcar el “vacío jurídico” dentro de este sistema de protección, al no reconocer aquellos individuos afectados por los desastres naturales y el cambio climático. Aunque es una recopilación de autores y artículos importantes frente al tema, este trabajo de investigación quiere generar un cuestionamiento a los actores responsables, a aquellos que puedan tanto sugerir como ejecutar soluciones a largo plazo que suministren la protección legal a aquellas personas que han sido forzadas a desplazarse de su lugar de origen a causa de daños ambientales y por la incapacidad gubernamental para proporcionar soluciones de prevención, mitigación y solución a este tipo de problemas.

Incidencia del cambio climático en la seguridad ambiental de las maldivas. Un desafío para la construcción de un régimen internacional de refugiados ambientales (2000-2012)

El interés de esta investigación diagnóstica es evaluar el tema de los refugiados ambientales en las legislaciones internacionales que se encuentran en vigencia actualmente. Es un elemento de análisis pertinente debido a que durante los últimos años el cambio climático y sus efectos adversos han causado estragos en algunas poblaciones, dando origen a lo que se conoce como refugiados ambientales. Así, la falta de inclusión del concepto en la normatividad internacional, representa una problemática, en tanto que estas personas no tienen ningún tipo de apoyo por parte de la Comunidad Internacional. En este trabajo se centra en el caso de las Islas Maldivas y refleja la necesidad de crear un nuevo régimen internacional que cubra a la figura de refugiados ambientales, para así hacer frente a esta problemática internacional.

El fenómeno de los refugiados ambientales en Haití y su repercusión en la seguridad regional (2010-2015)

Esta monografía busca analizar cómo el fenómeno de los refugiados ambientales que se generó a partir del terremoto en Haití de 2010, ha influido sobre el complejo de seguridad en la región de el Caribe, desde el 2010 hasta el 2015, teniendo en cuenta la crisis social provocada por el desastre ambiental, ya que en razón de la carencia de estatus legal y de amenazas interdependientes y multidimensionales obligó a los Estados del área a modificar sus políticas de seguridad, mediante la interacción de los países, puesto que se presentaron diferentes cambios en las relaciones del complejo de seguridad, lo cual determino nuevas transformaciones en la securitización de la región. Esta monografía recurrirá a la teoría de Complejos de Seguridad Regional de autores como: Barry Buzan, Ole Waever, Derrick Frazier y Robert Stewart.

A proteção dos \"Refugiados Ambientais\" no Direito Internacional

Refugiados ambientais são refugiados não convencionais e são migrantes forçados, interna ou internacionalmente, temporária ou permanentemente, em situação de vulnerabilidade e que se veem obrigados a deixar sua morada habitual por motivos ambientais de início lento ou de início rápido, causados por motivos naturais, antropogênicos ou pela combinação de ambos. Embora não existam reconhecimento e proteção específica para esses migrantes no direito internacional em escala global, alguns instrumentos jurídicos regionais e leis nacionais assim o fazem. Argumenta-se, nesta tese de doutorado, que os refugiados ambientais possuem modos de proteção geral em certas áreas do direito internacional e que as possibilidades atuais e futuras de proteção específica podem ser encontradas nas fontes primárias do direito internacional, indicadas no artigo 38(1) do Estatuto da Corte Internacional de Justiça. Foram identificadas sete vias de proteção dos refugiados ambientais no direito internacional e no direito interno estatal: (i) a via da ação humanitária, (ii) a via da proteção complementar, (iii) a via da legislação nacional, (iv) a via da justiça climática, (v) a via da responsabilidade compartilhada, (vi) a via da judicialização do refúgio ambiental e (vii) a via do tratado internacional. Sugere-se, ainda, o estabelecimento de uma governança migratória-ambiental global baseada nos regimes internacionais e na ação dos atores nos níveis local, nacional, regional e internacional para a execução das formas de proteção e para o atendimento das necessidades dos refugiados ambientais no mundo.

Shifting Powers : Protection of Refugees and Displaced Persons in the Asia Pacific Region

The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees' (UNHCR) 2011 statistics on refugee populations residing by region are a stark reminder of the challenge facing states and civil society in the Asia Pacific. In 2011, Africa hosted 2,149,000 refugees; the Americas, Europe, and Middle East and North Africa hosted 513 ,500, 1,605,500 and 1,889,900 respectively, while the Asia Pacific hosted a staggering 3,793,900. The fact that 35 per cent of the world's refugees reside in the Asia Pacific, coupled with the fact that 84 per cent of refugees displaced in Asia remain in the region,raises the questions why so few countries in the region are signatories to the Convention relating to the Status of Refugees ('Refugee Convention') or cognate rights instruments and why no formally binding regional agreement exists for the equitable sharing of responsibilities for refugees...

Experiences of resettled refugees during the 2011 Queensland floods

With projected climatic changes it is expected that refugees and other forced migrants will increasingly spend protracted amounts of time in transit countries or will resettle in locations that experience ecological vulnerability. A submission to the Queensland Floods Commission Inquiry 2011 by MDA reported that the floods displaced about 70 refugee client families and that 30 families had ongoing complex needs at the time of the submission. The findings reported in this chapter are derived from a follow-up of a cohort of men from refugee backgrounds who participated in the 2008–10 SettleMEN project. The chapter provides an insight into the experiences of refugee migrants who experience environmental disaster in a site of settlement

In Situ Observation of the Thermal Decomposition of Weddelite by Heating Stage Environmental Scanning Electron Microscopy

The morphological and chemical changes occurring during the thermal decomposition of weddelite, CaC2O4·2H2O, have been followed in real time in a heating stage attached to an Environmental Scanning Electron Microscope operating at a pressure of 2 Torr, with a heating rate of 10 °C/min and an equilibration time of approximately 10 min. The dehydration step around 120 °C and the loss of CO around 425 °C do not involve changes in morphology, but changes in the composition were observed. The final reaction of CaCO3 to CaO while evolving CO2 around 600 °C involved the formation of chains of very small oxide particles pseudomorphic to the original oxalate crystals. The change in chemical composition could only be observed after cooling the sample to 350 °C because of the effects of thermal radiation.