Challenges for expatriate managers:an exploration of cross-cultural management, adjustment, and training issues faced by Anglo-American managers in Hong Kong

This field work study furthers understanding about expatriate management, in particular, the nature of cross-cultural management in Hong Kong involving Anglo-American expatriate and Chinese host national managers, the important features of adjustment for expatriates living and working there, and the type of training which will assist them to adjust and to work successfully in this Asian environment. Qualitative and quantitative data on each issue was gathered during in-depth interviews in Hong Kong, using structured interview schedules, with 39 expatriate and 31 host national managers drawn from a cross-section of functional areas and organizations. Despite the adoption of Western technology and the influence of Western business practices, micro-level management in Hong Kong retains a cultural specificity which is consistent with the norms and values of Chinese culture. There are differences in how expatriates and host nationals define their social roles, and Hong Kong's recent colonial history appears to influence cross-cultural interpersonal interactions. The inability of the spouse and/or family to adapt to Hong Kong is identified as a major reason for expatriate assignments to fail, though the causes have less to do with living away from family and friends, than with Hong Kong's highly urbanized environment and the heavy demands of work. Culture shock is not identified as a major problem, but in Hong Kong micro-level social factors require greater adjustment than macro-level societal factors. The adjustment of expatriate managers is facilitated by a strong orientation towards career development and hard work, possession of technical/professional expertise, and a willingness to engage in a process of continuous 'active learning' with respect to the host national society and culture. A four-part model of manager training suitable for Hong Kong is derived from the study data. It consists of a pre-departure briefing, post-arrival cross-cultural training, language training in basic Cantonese and in how to communicate more effectively in English with non-native speakers, and the assignment of a mentor to newly arrived expatriate managers.

The effect of emotions in cross-cultural expatriate experiences

With increased recognition of the existence of emotions in everyday interpersonal interactions, the need for emotions in cross-cultural interactions has become more obvious. Emotions play an important role in cross-cultural expatriate interactions as these experiences are essentially social encounters. Yet, little research addresses the emotions felt and the emotional demands involved in the cross-cultural interaction. Research on expatriate experiences centres solely on the cross-cultural training, sensitivity, and adaptability of expatriates. What fails to be addressed, however, is the emotional aspect of this interaction. In this paper, we examine the cross-cultural expatriate experience, integrating both the cultural and emotional aspects of the interaction. In doing so, we aim to advance understanding of the expatriate experience and the potential reasons underlying expatriate success and failure.

Expatriate managers adjustment and its impact on subordinates reactions: a cross cultural leadership study of Kenya and Ethiopia

Research on culture, leadership and adjustment shows that societal culture influences leadership in such a way that it can impact on expatriate managers' effectiveness and adjustment in a new culture. In previous research, cultural background, personality, motives or behaviour of expatriate managers and their followers' reactions to them have been investigated in Europe, America and Asia. However, little attention has been paid on research on expatriate managers in African cultures especially in Eastern Africa. The present study represents an attempt to address the gap by examining how societal culture, leadership and adjustment success are interrelated for expatriate managers in Kenya and Ethiopia. Questionnaire data were obtained from a) local middle managers (N=160) for studying societal culture and leadership in Kenya and Ethiopia, b) expatriate managers in non-governmental organizations - NGOs (N=28) for studying expatriate managers' personality, motives and adjustment success and c) their immediate subordinates (N=125) for studying the expatriate managers' behaviours and their subordinates' reactions to them. Additionally, expatriate managers were interviewed and responses were coded for implicit motives, experiences and adjustment. SPSS was used to analyse data from questionnaires to obtain cultural and leadership dimensions, leader behaviour and subordinate reactions. The NVIVO computer based disclosure analysis package was used to analyse interview data. Findings indicate that societal culture influences leadership behaviours and leadership perceptions while the expatriate managers' motives, behaviours, personality and the cross cultural training they received prior to their assignment impact on the expatriates' adjustment success and on subordinates' reactions to them. The cultural fit between expatriate managers' home country (19 countries) and the target country (Kenya or Ethiopia) had no significant association with adjustment success but was positively related to expatriate behaviour and negatively associated with subordinates reactions. However, some particular societal practices - obviously adopted by expatriates and transferred to their target country - did predict subordinates' commitment, motivation and job satisfaction. Furthermore, expatriates' responsibility motivation was positively related to their adjustment success. Regarding leadership behaviours and effectiveness, expatriate' supportive behaviours predicted subordinates' job satisfaction most strongly. Expatriate managers expressing their management philosophies and experience shed light on the various aspects of adjustment and management of NGOs. In addition, review of Kenyan and Ethiopian cultures and the NGO context in these countries offers valuable information for expatriate managers. This study's general imphcation for Cross Cultural Management and lnternational Human Resources Management is that the combination of culture general and culture specific knowledge and reflections on Eastern Africa countries can inform senior management and international HR staff about the critical issue of what to include in training, coaching, and actual experience in a particular host country in order to ensure effective leadership. Furthennore, this knowledge is expected to influence expatriate managers' behaviour modification to enhance positive subordinate reactions. Questions about how to prepare expatriate managers and subordinates to work more competently and sensitively across cultures are addressed. Further theoretical implications, limitations of the study and directions for future research are also addressed.

Elégùn: Ritual e Formação Humana

Este estudo tem como objetivo central investigar o processo de constituição de identidades ritualístico-culturais dos adeptos dos cultos negros brasileiros a partir dos rituais de iniciação propostos pelas comunidades de cultos. A partir de sua consagração ritualística,os iniciados são denominados elégùn e passam a conviver entre o sagrado, por intermédio da concepção da ancestralidade divinizada, e as relações estabelecidas no devir de sua história. Foi fulcral para este estudo a correlação feita pelos adeptos entre suas práticas ritualísticas e sua formação histórica, social, política e, sobretudo, cultural. Permeado pelas histórias e pelas memórias individuais e, em alguns momentos, coletivas, o estudo entremeia-se aos aportes teóricos de, propondo constante diálogo entre eles. A concepção de que as culturas que se efetivam e se estabelecem mediante relações construídas e vivenciadas no cotidiano são ações profícuas e intensas de identidades próprias cunhou grande parte do referido estudo. Observou-se que a ancestralidade transita pelas diversas esferas vividas pelo elégùn, interagindo, integrando e reelaborando rituais e sujeitos.

Relações de género a nível de currículo e prática docente

Este trabalho analisa a forma com que é tratado o Currículo a partir da Prática Docente acerca do trabalho em vivência sobre temas relacionados às Relações de Gênero na Escola Estadual de Referência em Ensino Médio de Panelas – Pernambuco - Brasil. Um trabalho situado entre os estudos de Ciências da Educação, onde inicia uma reflexão sobre o conceito de gênero, onde referencia os teóricos Joan Scott, Guacira Louro, Claúdia Vianna, Sandra Unbehaum, Marion Quadros, Branca Alves, Cavaleiro, Michel Foucault, Mary Del Priore, ainda tratou do conceito de Currículo defendidos por Michael Apple, Silva, Lopes, e por fim a discussão de Prática Docente a partir da visão de Arroyo, entre outros. Foi seguido uma relação de estudos acadêmicos acerca de como cuidava-se do tema sobre Relações de Gênero no âmbito escolar ao passar dos tempos, percebendo a pouca vivência de tema de tal importância para formação sociocultural do ser, assim como um apanhado sobre a importância de se ater-se ao currículo da escola para melhor desenvoltura por parte do professor, foram discutidos os vários significados do que venha a ser a formação cultural do ser homem e mulher a partir de uma comparação da sociedade mais antiga até os dias atuais, a importância de incluir no currículo escolar temas como Relações de Gênero e como vinha sendo a prática docente a cerca destes assuntos. A pesquisa teve um caráter qualitativo e quantitativo, desenvolvida em uma escola estadual da cidade de Panelas – Pernambuco, durante os anos de 2011 e 2012. Os dados para a realização empírica foram obtidos por meio de questionários aplicados aos estudantes e por meio de entrevistas junto aos educadores. A grande importância de ater-se aos dados gerados a partir da participação dos sujeitos, deu-se a condição de questionamentos de como estava sendo aplicado o trabalho referente a relações de gênero na escola, sobre a prática docente e como era a vivência do currículo neste ensejo. Desta forma, tento mostrar que os estudos de gênero podem instigar o cidadão a conhecer e compreender a necessidade deste trabalho sobre relações de gênero para a formação cultural do cidadão, e perceber a falta de formação do docente, para que se possa dar o devido valor à construção da educação.

Attraktiv expatriering : Före, under och efter

Syfte och utgångspunkt:    Att utifrån fyra organisationer undersöka faktorer som är viktiga för arbete med expatriering och att använda Mendenhall, Dunbar och Oddous modell som inspiration för att skapa en egen modell med faktorer värdefulla för en expatrieringsprocess.   Forskningsresan:                 Utifrån referensram samt ett empiriskt resultat av intervjuer identifieras fyra kategorier, betydelse av att ta med familjen, mentorskap och stöd, anpassning till kultur och karriärplanering. Det empiriska resultatet samt referensramen är sedan grunden till analys och slutsats.   Slutsats:                              I slutsatsen presenteras betydelsefulla faktorer för utgången av studiens syfte.   Dessa faktorer används sedan i den modell författarna skapat. Modellen visar hur behovet av de fyra kategorierna är beroende av den planerade utlandsstationeringens längd.   Metod:                                Författarna av studien utgår från en kvalitativ ansats med djupintervjuer som metod. Det empiriska resultatet baseras på det material som framkommit genom djupintervjuer med  respondenterna från de fyra organisationerna.

The effect of emotions in Australian expatriate experiences

With increased recognition of the existence of emotions in everyday interpersonal interactions, the need for emotions in cross-cultural interactions has become more obvious. Emotions play an important role in cross-cultural expatriate interactions as these experiences are essentially social encounters. Yet, little research addresses the emotions felt and the emotional demands involved in the cross-cultural interaction. Research on expatriate experiences centres solely on the cross cultural training, sensitivity, and adaptability of expatriates. What fails to be addressed, however, is the emotional aspect of this interaction. In this article, we examine the cross-cultural expatriate experience from the perspective of the Australian expatriate in Asia, integrating both the cultural and emotional aspects of the interaction. In doing so, we aim to advance understanding of the expatriate experience and the potential reasons underlying expatriate success and failure.

Having a baby in the new land : a qualitative exploration of the experiences of Asian migrants in rural Tasmania, Australia

Introduction: Australia is a land of cultural diversity. Cultural differences in maternity care may result in conflict between migrants and healthcare providers, especially when migrants have minimal English language knowledge. The aim of the study was to investigate Asian migrant women’s child-birth experiences in a rural Australian context.

Method: The study consisted of semi-structured interviews conducted with 10 Asian migrant women living in rural Tasmania to explore their childbirth experiences and the barriers they faced in accessing maternal care in the new land. The data were analysed using grounded theory and three main categories were identified: ‘migrants with traditional practices in the new land’, ‘support and postnatal experiences’ and ‘barriers to accessing maternal care’.

Results: The findings revealed that Asian migrants in Tasmania faced language and cultural barriers when dealing with the new healthcare system. Because some Asian migrants retain traditional views and practices for maternity care, confusion and conflicting expectations may occur. Family and community play an important role in supporting migrant women through their maternity care.

Conclusions: Providing interpreting services, social support for migrant women and improving the cross-cultural training for healthcare providers were recommended to improve available maternal care services.

Maternity care experiences of Asia ethnic minorities in rural Tasmania, Australia : a mixed methods study

When migrating to Australia Asian women bring with them birthing cultural beliefs and practices, many of which are different from the Australian medical and cultural understanding of reproduction. Such cultural differences may result in conflicts between clients and health care providers especially when the migrants have a poor knowledge of English. The research investigates the maternity care experiences of Asian migrants in Tasmania. The barriers that Asian migrants face in accessing maternity care services and the factors that affect their views towards maternity care were also explored. A mix of quantitative and qualitative methods was employed. Ten women from different ethnic minorities were invited to semi-structured interviews. The qualitative data were analysed using grounded theory. Findings from the interviews were utilized to design a survey questionnaire. Of the 150 survey questionnaires posted, 121 questionnaires were returned. Descriptive statistics and Chi-square tests of independence were used to analyse the quantitative data. Asian migrants followed some traditional practices such as having good rest and eating hot food during the postpartum month. However, they tended to adapt or disregard traditional practices that were no longer applicable in the new environment including the practices of not washing or having a shower. Support is vital for women recovering after childbirth to prevent postnatal depression. Two main barriers migrant women face in accessing health care are language and cultural barriers. Country of origin, partner’s ethnicity, religion and length of stay in Australia are factors that shape the migrants’ views and attitudes towards and experience of maternity care. Providing interpreting services, social support for migrant women and improving the cross-cultural training for healthcare providers are recommended to improve available maternal care services. The factors that affect migrants’ view on maternity care should be taken into account when providing maternity care for Asian migrant women.

Packaged good : responses from Australian journalism educators on the Reporting Diversity project

The Reporting Diversity Project provides teaching materials on reporting cultural diversity for journalism educators and university students. This article reports the findings from a survey designed to gauge journalism educators' awareness of the online curriculum resources and their views on the usefulness of these materials. The survey was also used to capture journalism academics' views on educational resources produced with government support. This article includes the findings from a series of trials of the Reporting Diversity teaching resources with a small cohort of academics from throughout Australia. It includes their evaluation of the resources and reveals ways in which the modules are being used and adapted for different classroom settings.

Development of the reflexive antiracism scale – indigenous

Purpose – Reflexive Antiracism is an approach to antiracism that seeks to avoid the limitations of essentialism and negative emotional reactions through a focus on racialisation (a concept that encompasses both racism and antiracism) as well as the formation and maintenance of racialised identities. This paper aims to outline the construction and validation of a scale to measure this novel theoretical construct: the Reflexive Antiracism Scale-Indigenous (RAS-I).

Design/methodology/approach – In the context of a cultural training course focused on Indigenous peoples in Australia, 20 items to assess attitudes were developed along with four hypothetical scenarios designed to assess behavioural intentions in specific situations. The survey formed by these items and scenarios was piloted to assess test-retest, concurrent and construct validity as well as item endorsement and internal reliability.

Findings – Findings suggest that an 11-item scale based on this survey forms a valid and reliable measure of Reflexive Antiracism. Further research and applications are discussed.

Originality/value – This paper will prompt further exploration of Reflexive Antiracism as a concept that can be applied in a range of settings where a more nuanced understanding and approach to antiracism may be of benefit. Being aware of their position within a society that is racialised will allow antiracists to be reflexive (and realistic) about their ability as individuals to achieve antiracist ideals while continuing to strive towards them.

Cultures at work: the case of italian expatriates in Brazil

Esta tese de mestrado tem por intenção entender quais são as mais importantes diferenças culturais para os expatriados Italianos que trabalham no Brasil e aprender as implicações práticas para o ambiente de trabalho. O método utilizado foi qualitativo, com 23 entrevistas em profundidade com expatriados italianos de nível médio ate top management, com experiência de trabalho no Brasil. Os resultados indicam que os expatriados Italianos experimentam dificuldades com as diferenças em termos de comunicação, distinção entre as esfera profissional e privada, distancia do poder e planejamento. Em contrapartida, outros fatores como a discriminação positiva para os estrangeiros, diferenças em geneder equality e masculinidade, assim como com a atitude positiva dos workplaces e uma economia em crescimento, todos influenciam de maneira positiva a experiência do expatriado. Enfim, algumas sugestões práticas sobre os efeitos das diferenças culturais e sobre a estruturação de um possível cross-cultural training são expostas.

Arte e educação: re-construindo o presente

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES)

A natureza comunicativa da cultura: pesquisa exploratória sobre a Festividade de Carimbó de São Benedito de Santarém Novo - Pará

Esta dissertação tem como título A natureza comunicativa da cultura: pesquisa exploratória sobre a Festividade de Carimbó de São Benedito de Santarém Novo – Pará. O objetivo da pesquisa é compreender a natureza comunicativa dessa festividade, observando as características que a constituem e nelas buscando elementos que são interpretados como processos comunicativos. A proposta parte das noções de natureza comunicativa da cultura em Martín-Barbero (2006) e França (2001), além da concepção de processo comunicativo desta pesquisadora. Delineamos, assim, os contextos nos quais a pesquisa está inserida, refletindo sobre a “invenção” da Amazônia (ARAGÓN, 2007; MAUÉS, 1999; DUTRA, 2009) e sua formação socio-histórica (BEZERRA NETO, 2001; BECKER, 2009) e cultural (SALLES, 2004; ALVES FILHO, 2001; LOUREIRO, 2000). No que se refere à Comunicação, buscamos sua “perspectiva antropológica” (WOLTON, 2006) aliada às relações entre mídia e modernidade (THOMPSON, 2011). Entendendo a Comunicação a partir da cultura, discutimos, observando a experiência cultural que a festividade representa (RODRIGUES, 1994), as relações entre a tradição e a modernidade (THOMPSON, 2011) em seus processos de hibridação (GARCÍA-CANCLINI, 2008). Além disso, refletimos sobre a “herança funcional” das pesquisas em Comunicação (WOLF, 2008; MARTÍN-BARBERO, 2004, 2006, 2009a; MARTINO, 2004, 2006) e nossa perspectiva de natureza comunicativa da cultura (MARTÍN-BARBERO, 2006; FRANÇA. 2001), relacionando-a aos conceitos de “mediações comunicativas da cultura” e de “midiatização” (BRAGA, 2012; SODRÉ, 2011). Para desenvolvermos a pesquisa de campo, além da pesquisa bibliográfica, utilizamos técnicas da etnografia para a coleta de dados, tais como: a observação participante, a entrevista em profundidade com os integrantes da festa e o diário de campo. Compreendemos, assim, a natureza comunicativa da festividade a partir dos elementos que a constituem destacando o seu caráter comunitário e de tradição, o que nos levou a evidenciar a comunicação em seu sentido de compartilhamento e de comunhão.