Do close reading à encenação: Frei Luís de Sousa

O presente artigo teve origem num texto escrito para o programa do espectáculo Frei Luís de Sousa, com encenação de Carlos Avilez, no Teatro Nacional D. Maria II, na abertura das Comemorações do Bicentenário do nascimento de Almeida Garrett.

Close reading 11-14 : comprehension, interpretation and language activities.

Este recurso se compone de quince fragmentos, en su mayoría de novelas modernas, diseñados para alumnos de doce a catorce años. Los pasajes están, más o menos, clasificados en orden de dificultad, con las últimas selecciones procedentes de libros dirigidos a lectores adultos. Se ofrece un resumen para estimular el interés del conjunto del texto. Cada capítulo se centra en una característica específica del lenguaje y proporciona explicaciones y ejercicios de prácticas en ese aspecto. Los temas varían en dificultad, y los maestros pueden usar su criterio para decidir si una sección es apropiada para un grupo de alumnos en particular. Se proporciona al final del libro material para la revisión.

“All Data is Credit Data,” or, On Close Reading as a Reciprocal Process in Digital Knowledge Environments

The new knowledge environments of the digital age are oen described as places where we are all closely read, with our buying habits, location, and identities available to advertisers, online merchants, the government, and others through our use of the Internet. This is represented as a loss of privacy in which these entities learn about our activities and desires, using means that were unavailable in the pre-digital era. This article argues that the reciprocal nature of digital networks means 1) that the privacy issues that we face online are not radically different from those of the pre-Internet era, and 2) that we need to reconceive of close reading as an activity of which both humans and computer algorithms are capable.

Para uma leitura não biográfica da obra de Mário de Sá Carneiro (e uma apreciação de o modernismo em Mário de Sá-Carneiro de Fernando Cabral Martins)

Este artigo pretende sublinhar a importância de entender a obra de Mário de Sá- Carneiro através de uma leitura atenta da sua produção literária que não procura provas da “veracidade” dessa leitura na biografia do poeta do Orpheu. Partindo de uma análise do trabalho crítico de Fernando Cabral Martins, levanta-se a problemática de deturpar uma análise de crítica literária com abordagens influenciadas por normas de história da literatura que inserem a obra no seu contexto histórico, o que tem sido o caso na recepção da obra de Sá-Carneiro, onde o mito do autor tende a ofuscar o seu legado literário. Assim, este artigo questiona se em O Modernismo em Mário de Sá-Carneiro, Fernando Cabral Martins consegue libertar a obra sá-carneiriana da sombra do poeta biográfico, e oferece uma avaliação panorâmica da tradição crítica dedicada ao autor, apontando para casos de interpretações que se prenderam com questões que ficam para fora do texto, como tem sido o caso com a natureza homossexual da obra e do homem.

“Searching for the ghost of Tom Joad”: resurrecting Steinbeck’s gaze

This dissertation involves a close reading of Springsteen’s lyrics in relation to the thematic concerns of the Tom Joad album. Enquiring into the sometimes multiple levels of significance that these lyrics can be seen to express, in order to show the manner in which Springsteen mirrors the broader thematic concerns of Steinbeck’s The Grapes of Wrath’ s novel but also adapts and reinterprets these themes for his own time. In this sense, I will try to underline the ways in which, for Springsteen’s vision of his country in the 1990’s, the presence of troublesome issues from decades before is one that can, in certain ways, still be seen, felt and experienced. It is in this manner that the ghost of Tom Joad is summoned

Dire le futur au Moyen Age : du prologue au récit : du Chevalier au Lion de Chrétien de Troyes au Chevalier au Lion de Pierre Sala

S'inscrivant dans le domaine de l'analyse des relations temporelles dans les textes, la présente étude est consacrée à la notion du futur définie en tant qu'anticipation sur les événements à venir dans le récit. Ainsi, la recherche en question se propose de mettre en lumière les différents mécanismes d'anticipation propres aux récits d'aventures au Moyen Âge. Recourant aux moyens heuristiques existants (les bases de la théorie de la réception telle qu'elle est représentée dans les travaux de Jauss, Eco et Greimas), cette thèse se concentre sur l'étude du prologue de l'oeuvre littéraire dont elle élabore une grille de lecture particulière qui tient compte de la complexité de la notion du futur envisagée aux plans grammatical (formes verbales du futur), rhétorique (la figure de la prolepse) et littéraire (les scénarios et les isotopies). La démarche de la lecture détaillée du prologue adoptée au cours de ce travail s'applique d'abord au Chevalier au Lion de Chrétien de Troyes, texte fondateur du corpus, qui constitue, pour parler avec Philippe Walter, un vrai « drame du temps ». L'étude des mécanismes d'anticipation mis en place dans le prologue se prolonge ensuite dans les chapitres consacrés à Claris et Laris et au Chevalier au Lion de Pierre Sala, deux réécritures du célèbre roman du maître champenois. Datant, respectivement, du XIIIe et du début du XVIe siècle, ces oeuvres permettent de saisir le chemin parcouru par le futur dans son aspect thématique et diachronique, ce qui est particulièrement propice au repérage des critères qui influencent l'attente du lecteur par rapport aux événements à venir au fil des siècles. Ainsi, à côté des moyens d'expression « standards » du futur (scénarios intertextuels et isotopies), la présente recherche fait apparaître d'autres facteurs qui influencent l'anticipation, notamment le procédé de la disputatio, le recours à la satire, la démarche de l'engagement indirect et l'opposition vers/prose. La seconde partie de la thèse qui traite, d'un côté, des récits consacrés à la fée Mélusine de Jean d'Arras et de Coudrette, du Livre du Cuer d'amours espris de René d'Anjou de l'autre, sert à vérifier dans quelle mesure la démarche choisie s'applique à des oeuvres du Moyen Âge tardif qui combinent des éléments empruntés à la tradition antérieure avec des éléments d'autre provenance. L'analyse de Mélusine et du Livre du Cuer conduit à ajouter deux facteurs supplémentaires qui influencent l'attente du lecteur, à savoir la démarche de l'engagement partiel et le recours au genre judiciaire. Cette étude démontre que le traitement du futur est d'un enjeu capital pour lire les textes du Moyen Âge, car il permet au lecteur, dès le prologue, de reconnaître la fin vers laquelle tend le récit et de faire par là- même une lecture enrichie, supérieure à d'autres. Telling the Future in the Middle Ages : from the Prologue to the Narrative. From Chrétien de Troyes ' Chevalier au Lion to Pierre Sala 's Chevalier au Lion. Part of the analyses of the time based relations within the texts, the present study deals with the notion of future characterized as an anticipation of the events to come in the narrative. Therefore, the purpose of this research is to bring to light the various mechanisms of anticipation peculiar to the narratives of adventures in the Middle Ages. Making the use of the existing heuristic instruments (the bases of the theory of the reception as it presents itself in the works by Jauss, Eco and Greimas), this thesis is dedicated to the study of the prologue of the work of fiction by means of a particular key for reading which takes into account the complexity of the notion of future with regard to its grammatical side (future tenses), to its rhetorical side (prolepse) and to its literary side (scenario and isotopy). First of all, the close reading of the prologue used in this work is applied to Chrétien de Troyes's Chevalier au Lion (Lion Knight), the founding text of our literary corpus, which represents, according to Philippe Walter, the real « drama of Time ». Then, the study of the mechanisms of anticipation in the prologue is carried over to the chapters devoted to Claris et Laris and to Pierre Sala's Chevalier au Lion, two romances that rewrite Chrétien de Troyes' famous work. Written, respectively, in the XIIIth and in the beginning of the XVI century, these romances enable the reader to ascertain the changes in the manner of telling the future from the thematic and diachronic point of view : this is particularly convenient to the identification of the criteria which influence the reader's expectations relative to the future events in the course of the centuries. Therefore, next to the « standard » means of expression of future (intertextual scenario and isotopy), the present study reveals other factors which influence the anticipation, in particular the method of the disputatio, the use of the satire, the approach of the indirect commitment and the verse/prose opposition. The second part of the thesis which deals with the narratives concerning the fairy Melusine written by Jean d'Arras and by Coudrette on one hand, with René d'Anjou's Livre du Cuer d'amours espris on the other hand, is used to verify to what extent the chosen approach applies to the works of fiction of the Late Middle Ages that combine the elements from the previous tradition with the elements of other origin. The analysis of Melusine's romances and of the Livre du Cuer brings us to add two new factors which influence the reader's expectations : the approach of the partial commitment, and the use of the legal discourse. This study demonstrates that the manner of telling the future is of the utmost importance to read the texts of the Middle Ages, because it enables the reader to know the end of the story from the very beginning, from the prologue, thus leading to a richer and superior reading.

Aspekte des Erzählens in der "Melusine" Thürings von Ringoltingen : Dialoge, Zeitstruktur und Medialität des Romans

Résumé de thèse ,,Aspekte des Erzählens in der ,Melusine' Thürings von Ringoltingen. Dialoge, Zeitstruktur und Medialität des Romans" Im Mittelpunkt der Arbeit steht der 1456 abgeschlossene Prosaroman ,Melusine' des Berner Patriziers Thüring von Ringoltingen. Geforscht wurde ausgehend von einem ausgewählten Überlieferungszeugen, dem mit 67 Holzschnitten ausgestatteten Basler Erstdruck des Bernhard Richel von 1473/74. Als Instrumentarium des Forschungsvorhabens dient die aus der Fusion linguistischer und komparatistischer Arbeitsweisen neu kreierte Theorie der ,,analyse textuelle et comparative des discours" von Adam und Heidmann (Kap. 1). In Kap. 2 und 3 wird die Rolle des den Stoff organisierenden Erzählers untersucht. Kap. 2 bietet in diesem Rahmen Überlegungen zur historischen Semantik von materye und hystorie, während Kap. 3 die narrative Handhabung der Erzählchronologie analysiert. Dabei stehen die zahlreichen Vorausdeutungen und Rückblenden im Zentrum, die der Erzähler in seinen Roman einflicht. Untersucht wird, wie sich diese zum analytischen Erzählaufbau verhalten. Gezeigt wird ferner, wie der Erzähler bei Thüring negativ gefärbte Vorausdeutungen raffiniert zu einer gegenüber Coudrette neuen Textausssage einsetzt, indem er sie mit dem vom Berner Autor neu in den Text eingefügten Augustinusexemplum vernetzt. Detaillierte Anhänge zu den Pro- und Analepsen dokumentieren die Parallelen und Unterschiede zwischen Thürings und Coudrettes ,Melusine'. In Kap. 4 werden die erzählungsimmanenten Dialoge in direkter Rede analysiert (mit Exkursen zur Relation zwischen Sehen und Sprechen sowie den Stilregistern der Höflichkeit, soweit sie sich in den Dialogen abzeichnen). Mit Rückgriff auf Methoden der linguistischen Dialoganalyse werden im Rahmen eines close-reading die langen Dialoge exemplarisch untersucht. Beleuchtet werden die Zusammenhänge, in denen Figurenrede direkt wiedergegeben wird. Des weiteren wird die Art und Weise analysiert, mit der sich Dialoge in direkter Rede in die textliche Umgebung einfügen bzw. mit Passagen indirekter Rede oder mit Erzählerrede kombiniert sind. Schliesslich interessiert die Frage, inwiefern die sich in der verbalen Interaktion zwischen den Protagonisten widerspiegelnde Beziehung Aufschluss zum Verhältnis der Figuren untereinander geben kann und damit Interpretationsansätze für den Roman insgesamt bereitstellt. Kap. 5 untersucht die Text-Bild-Verhältnisse in der Richel-Inkunabel. Mit dem Ziel zu sehen, wie die Präsentation des Romans in der Inkunabel die Rezeption von Thürings Text möglicherweise beeinflusst, galt das Augenmerk den folgenden drei Teilbereichen, die jeweils mit einem Anhang belegt sind: 1. Vergleich der Struktur, die der Roman auf der einen Seite durch den Stoff und durch die Erzählerinterventionen erhält und die auf der anderen Seite durch die Präsenz der Bilder und der Bildbeischriften zustande kommt. 2. Untersuchung des Dreiecksverhältnisses von Bild, Text und Titulus. Es interessierte die Frage, welche Elemente der Romanhandlung in der jeweiligen Kategorie auftreten und wo Bild und/oder Bildbeischrift allenfalls zusätzliche resp. weniger Informationen bereitstellen als der Romantext selbst. 3. Untersuchung der Eingliederung von Bild und Titulus in den Romantext. Analysiert wurde, wie Bild und Bildbeischrift gegenüber dem Romantext an manchen Stellen Informationen bereits vorwegnehmen, oder im Gegenteil Informationen nachschieben. Insgesamt ist die Dissertation ist in der Nachfolge der Untersuchungen Hans-Geit Roloffs zu sehen, wobei rund 40 Jahre Forschungsgeschichte zwischen den ,,Stilstudien" Roloffs und der hier präsentierten Untersuchung liegen. Ziel war es, an die Studien Roloffs anzuknüpfen, diese kritisch zu lesen und um neue Perspektiven zu erweitern, die über den unmittelbaren Vergleich zwischen Thürings ,Melusine' und seiner französischen Vorlage hinausgehen.

"Quien pone su esperanza en mujer flaca": una lectura de los sonetos de Lope de Vega

En este trabajo se ofrece un análisis de las representaciones femeninas en los sonetos de Lope de Vega a partir de la lectura de tres de sus obras mayores -Rimas (1602), Rimas sacras (1614) y Rimas humanas y divinas del licenciado Tomé de Burguillos (1634)- con el propósito de valorar su relación con la tradición medieval y renacencista, así como la originalidad de su tratamiento.

More than Words? An Analysis on the Language and Structure of General Election Manifestos of the British Labour Party 1983-2005

The topic of this study is the language of the educational policies of the British Labour party in the General Election manifestos between the years 1983-2005. The twenty-year period studied has been a period of significant changes in world politics, and in British politics, especially for the Labour party. The emergence educational policy as a vote-winner of the manifestos of the nineties has been noteworthy. The aim of the thesis is two-fold: to look at the structure of the political manifesto as an example of genre writing and to analyze the content utilizing the approach of critical discourse analysis. Furthermore, the aim of this study is not to pinpoint policy positions but to look at what is the image that the Labour Party creates of itself through these manifestos. The analysis of the content is done by a method of close-reading. Based on the findings, the methodology for the analysis of the content was created. This study utilized methodological triangulation which means that the material is analyzed from several methodological aspects. The aspects used in this study are ones of lexical features (collocation, coordination, euphemisms, metaphors and naming), grammatical features (thematic roles, tense, aspect, voice and modal auxiliaries) and rhetoric (Burke, Toulmin and Perelman). From the analysis of the content a generic description is built. By looking at the lexical, grammatical and rhetorical features a clear change in language of the Labour Party can be detected. This change is foreshadowed already in the 1992 manifesto but culminates in the 1997 manifesto which would lead Labour to a landslide victory in the General Election. During this twenty-year period Labour has moved away from the old commitments and into the new sphere of “something for everybody”. The pervasiveness of promotional language and market inspired vocabulary into the sphere of manifesto writing is clear. The use of the metaphors seemed to be the tool for the creation of the image of the party represented through the manifestos. A limited generic description can be constructed from the findings based on the content and structure of the manifestos: especially more generic findings such as the use of the exclusive we, the lack of certain anatomical parts of argument structure, the use of the future tense and the present progressive aspect can shed light to the description of the genre of manifesto writing. While this study is only the beginning, it proves that the combination of looking at the lexical, grammatical and rhetorical features in the study of manifestos is a promising one.

Hume, liberty and the object of moral evaluation

Hume's project concerning the conflict between liberty and necessity is ";reconciliatory";. But what is the nature of Hume's project? Does he solve a problem in metaphysics only? And when Hume says that the dispute between the doctrines of liberty and necessity is merely verbal, does he mean that there is no genuine metaphysical dispute between the doctrines? In the present essay I argue for: (1) there is room for liberty in Hume's philosophy, and not only because the position is pro forma compatibilist, even though this has importance for the recognition that Hume's main concern when discussing the matter is with practice; (2) the position does not involve a ";subjectivization"; of every form of necessity: it is not compatibilist because it creates a space for the claim that the operations of the will are non-problematically necessary through a weakning of the notion of necessity as it applies to external objects; (3) Hume holds that the ordinary phenomena of mental causation do not preempt the atribuition of moral responsibility, which combines perfectly with his identification of the object of moral evaluation: the whole of the character of a person, in relation to which there is, nonetheless, liberty. I intend to support my assertions by a close reading of what Hume states in section 8 of the first Enquiry.

Escaping the flybottle: solipsism and method in Wittgenstein's Philosophical Remarks

The paper supports a dialectical interpretation of Wittgenstein's method focusing on the analysis of the conditions of experience presented in his Philosophical Remarks. By means of a close reading of some key passages dealing with solipsism I will try to lay bare their self-subverting character: the fact that they amount to miniature dialectical exercises offering specific directions to pass from particular pieces of disguised nonsense to corresponding pieces of patent nonsense. Yet, in order to follow those directions one needs to allow oneself to become simultaneously tempted by and suspicious of their all-too-evident "metaphysical tone" - a tone which, as we shall see, is particularly manifest in those claims purporting to state what can or cannot be the case, and, still more particularly, those purporting to state what can or cannot be done in language or thought, thus leading to the view that there are some (determinate) things which are ineffable or unthinkable. I conclude by suggesting that in writing those remarks Wittgenstein was still moved by an ethical project, which gets conspicuously displayed in these reiterations of his attempts to cure the readers (and himself) from some of the temptations expressed by solipsism.

Sivistyksestä sivilisaatioon. Kulttuurikäsitys J. V. Snellmanin historiallisessa ajattelussa

From Bildung to Civilisation. Conception of Culture in J. V. Snellman’s Historical Thinking The research explores Johan Vilhelm Snellman’s (1806–1881) conception of culture in the context of his historical thinking. Snellman was a Finnish, Swedish-speaking journalist, teacher and thinker, who held a central position in the Finnish national discourse during the nineteenth century. He has been considered as one of the leading theorists of a Finnish nation, writing widely about the themes such as the advancement of the national education, Finnish language and culture. Snellman is already a widely studied person in Finnish intellectual history, often characterised as a follower of G. W. F. Hegel’s philosophical system. My own research introduces a new kind of approach on Snellman’s texts, emphasising the conceptual level of his thought. With this approach, my aim is to broaden the Finnish research tradition on conceptual history. I consider my study as a cultural history of concepts, belonging also to the field of intellectual history. My focus is on one hand on the close reading of Snellman’s texts and on the other hand on contextualising his texts to the European intellectual tradition of the time. A key concept of Snellman’s theoretical thinking is his concept of bildning, which can be considered as a Swedish counterpart of the German concept of Bildung. The Swedish word incorporated all the main elements of the German concept. It could mean education or the so-called high culture, but most fundamentally it was about the self-formation of the individual. This is also the context in which Snellman’s concept of bildning has often been interpreted. In the study, I use the concept of bildning as a starting point of my research but I broaden my focus on the cognate concepts such as culture (kultur), spirit (anda) and civilisation. The purpose of my study is thus to illustrate how Snellman used and modified these concepts and from these observations to draw a conclusion about the nature of his conception of culture. Snellman was an early Finnish philosopher of history but also interested in the practice of the writing of history. He did not write any historical presentations himself but followed the publications in the field of history and introduced European historical writing to the Finnish, Swedish-speaking reading audience in his newspapers. The primary source material consists of different types of Snellman’s texts, including philosophical writings, lecture material, newspaper articles and private letters. I’m reading Snellman’s texts in the context of other texts produced both by his Finnish predecessors and contemporaries and by Swedish, German and French writers. Snellman’s principal philosophical works, Versuch einer spekulativen Entwicklung der Idee der Persönlichkeit (1841) and Läran om staten (1842), were both written abroad. Both of the works were contributions to contemporary debates on the international level, especially in Germany and Sweden. During the 1840s and 1850s Snellman had two newspapers of his own, Saima and Litteraturblad, which were directed towards the Swedish-speaking educated class. Both of the newspapers were very popular and their circulations were among the largest of their day in Finland. The topics of his articles and reviews covered literature, poetry, philosophy and education as well as issues concerning the economic, industrial and technical development in Finland. In his newspapers Snellman not only brought forth his own ideas but also spread the knowledge of European events and ideas to his readers. He followed very carefully the cultural and political situation in Western Europe. He also followed European magazines and newspapers and was well acquainted with German, French and also English literature – and of course Swedish literature to with which he had the closest ties. In his newspapers Snellman wrote countless number of literary reviews and critics, introducing his readers to European literature. The study consists of three main chapters in which I explore my research question in three different, yet overlapping contexts. In the first of these chapters, I analyse Snellman’n theoretical thinking and his concepts of bildning, kultur, anda and civilisation in the context of earlier cultural discourse in Finland as well as the tradition of German idealistic philosophy and neo-humanism. With the Finnish cultural discourse I refer to the early cultural discussion in Finland, which emerged after the year 1809, when Finland became an autonomous entity of its own as a Grand Duchy of Russia. Scholars of the Academy of Turku opened a discussion on the themes such as the state of national consciousness, the need for national education and the development of the Finnish language as a national language of Finland. Many of these academics were also Snellman’s teachers in the early years of his academic career and Snellman clearly formulated his own ideas in the footsteps of these Finnish predecessors. In his theoretical thinking Snellman was a collectivist; according to him an individual should always be understood in connection with the society, its values and manners, as well as to the traditions of a culture where an individual belongs to. In his philosophy of the human spirit Snellman was in many ways a Hegelian but his notion of education or ‘bildning’ includes also elements that connect him with the wider tradition of German intellectual history, namely the neo-humanist tradition and, at least to some extent, to the terminology of J. G. Herder or J. G. Fichte, for example. In this chapter, I also explore Snellman’s theory of history. In his historical thinking Snellman was an idealist, believing in the historical development of the human spirit (Geist in German language). One can characterise his theory of history by stating that it is a mixture of a Hegelian triumph of the spirit and Herderian emphasis on humanity (Humanität) and the relative nature of ‘Bildung’. For Snellman, the process of ‘bildning’ or ‘Bildung’ is being realised in historical development through the actions of human beings. Snellman believed in the historical development of the human civilization. Still Snellman himself considered that he had abandoned Hegel’s idea about the process of world history. Snellman – rightly or wrongly – criticised Hegel of emphasising the universal end of history (the realisation of the freedom of spirit) at the expense of the historical plurality and the freedom of each historical era. Snellman accused Hegel of neglecting the value and independency of different historical cultures and periods by imposing the abstract norm, the fulfilment of the freedom of spirit, as the ultimate goal of history. The historicist in Snellman believed in the individuality of each historical period; each historical era or culture had values, traditions and modes of thought of its own. This historicist in Snellman could not accept the talk about one measure or the end of history. On the other hand Snellman was also a universalist. He believed that mankind had a common task and that task was the development of ‘Bildung’, freedom or humanity. The second main chapter consists of two parts. In the first part, I explore the Finnish nationalistic discourse from the cultural point of view by analysing the notions such as a nation, national spirit or national language and showing how Snellman formulated his own ideas in a dialogic situation, participating in the Finnish discourse but also reacting to international discussions on the themes of the nation and nationality. For Snellman nationality was to a great extent the collective knowledge and customs or practices of the nation. Snellman stated that nationality is to be considered as a form of ‘bildning’. This could be seen not simply as affection for the fatherland but also for the mental identity of the nation, its ways of thinking, its practices, national language, customs and laws, the history of the nation. The simplest definition of nationality that Snellman gives is that nationality is the social life of the people. In the second part of the chapter I exam Snellman’s historical thinking and his understanding about historical development, interaction between different nations and cultures in the course of history, as well as the question of historical change; how do cultures or civilisations develop and who are the creators of culture? Snellman did not believe in one dominating culture but understood the course of history as a dialogue between different cultures. On the other hand, his views are very Eurocentric – here he follows the ideas of Hegel or for example the French historian François Guizot – for Snellman Europe represented the virtue of pluralism; in Europe one could see the diversity of cultures which, on the other hand, were fundamentally based on a common Christian tradition. In the third main chapter, my focus is on the writing of history, more precisely on Snellman’s ideas on the nature of history as a science and on the proper way of writing historical presentations. Snellman wrote critics on the works of history and introduced his readers to the writing of history especially in France, Sweden and German-speaking area – in some extend also in Britain. Snellman’s collectivistic view becomes evident also in his reviews on historical writing. For Snellman history was not about the actions of the states and their heads, nor about the records of ruling families and battles fought. He repeatedly stressed that history is a discipline that seeks to provide a total view of a phenomenon. A historian should not only collect information on historical events, since this information touches only the surface of a certain epoch or civilisation; he has to understand an epoch as totality. This required an understanding about the major contours in history, connections between civilisations and an awareness of significant turning points in historical development. In addition, it required a holistic understanding about a certain culture or historical era, including also the so-called inner life of a specific nation, a common people and their ways of life. Snellman wrote explicitly about ‘cultural history’ in his texts, referring to this kind of broad understanding of a society. In historical writing Snellman found this kind of broader view from the works of the French historians such as François Guizot and Jules Michelet. In all of these chapters, I elaborate the conceptual dimension of Snellman’s historical thinking. In my study I argue that Snellman not only adopted the German concepts of Bildung or Kultur in his own thinking but also developed the Swedish concepts in a way that include personal and innovative aspects. Snellman’s concept of bildning is not only a translation from ‘Bildung’ but he uses the Swedish concept in a versatile way that includes both the moral aspect of human development and social dimension of a human life. Along with ‘bildning’ Snellman used also the terms ‘kultur’ and ‘civilisation’ when referring to the totality of a certain nation or historical era, including both the so-called high culture (arts, science, religion) and the modes of thought as well as ways of life of the people as a whole. Unlike many of his Finnish contemporaries, Snellman did not use civilisation as a negative concept, lacking the moral essence of German term ‘Bildung’ or ‘Kultur’. Instead, for Snellman civilisation was a neutral term and here he comes close to the French tradition of using the term. In the study I argue that Snellman’s conception of culture in fact includes a synthesis of the German tradition of ‘Bildung’ and the French tradition of ‘civilisation’.

Talo, kartano, puutarha. Kauppahuoneen omistaja Marie Hackman ja hänen kulutusvalintansa varhaismodernissa Viipurissa

Tutkimuksessa keskitytään tutkimaan kuluttamista elämäntavan ja identiteetin muovaajana yhden yksilön elämän kautta. Kuluttamista tutkitaan statuskuluttamisen (conspicious consumption), tilallisuuden ja sukupuolihistorian käsitteistöä hyväksi käyttäen. Tutkimuksen lähteinä on käytetty liikekirjeitä ja tilikirjoja, yksityistä kirjeenvaihtoa, päiväkirjoja ja sanomalehtiä sekä aikalaismuistelmia. Naista lähdemateriaaleista on koottu sekä tilastollista aineistoa että kvalitatiivista, lähilukuun ja mikrohistorialliseen tutkimusotteeseen nojautuvaa tutkimusta. Tutkimus alkaa vuodesta 1799 ja päättyy 1830-luvulle, jolloin seuraava sukupolvi otti vastuun liiketoimista ja lähdeaineistossa tapahtui muutoksia kuluttamisen kirjaamisen suhteen. Tutkimuksen keskeiset käsitteet ovat statuskuluttaminen ja identiteetti. Näitä käsitteitä lähestytään Thorstein Veblenin, Norbert Eliaksen ja Pierre Bourdieun tutkimuksia apuna käyttäen. Tutkimus käsittelee erottautumisen ja jäljittelyn tematiikkaa merkittävimpänä kuluttamisen motivaattoreina. Lisaksi tutkimus nostaa esille hyvän maun ja muodinmukaisuuden kulutusvalintojen taustalla. Statuskuluttaminen kytkeytyy sosiaaliseen kanssakäymiseen. Kuluttamisen kohteet ovat esineitä ja asioita, joita pidetään esillä seurapiireissä. Kuluttaminen tapahtuu seuraelämän ehdoilla, sen mukavoittamiseksi, aseman osoittamiseksi seurapiireissä tai sosiaalisen paineen vuoksi. Tutkimus osoittaa kotitalouden merkityksen kuluttamisen paikkana ja kohteena. Tutkimus myös osoittaa naisten toimintakentän olleen kytköksissä kotitalouden asemaan yhteisössään sekä osoittaa, että sukupuolta pitää tarkastella suhteessa yksilön sosiaaliseen asemaan. Tutkimus osoittaa, että Marie Hackmanin kuluttaminen muuttui ikääntymisen myötä. Aseman osoittaminen oli merkittävämpää nuorena ja aseman ollessa vielä vakiintumattomampi.