Group 6 carbene complexes derived from lithiated azoles and the crystal structure of a molybdenum thiazolinylidene complex

Fischer-type (alkoxy)azolyl carbene complexes and Ofele-Lappert-type azolylinylidene complexes were synthesised by reaction of 1-phenylpyrazol-3 -yllithium, 4-methylthiazol-2-yllithium, benzothiazol-2-yllithium, 1-methylimidazol-2-yllithium with M(CO)(5)L (L = CO, THF or Cl-; M = Cr, Mo or W) and subsequent alkylation with CF3SO3CH3. The alkylation of Fischer-type carbene complexes containing an azolyl as the organic substituent proceeded via ring opening of tetrahydrofuran. When the alkylation is carried out in THF, the carbocation CH3O(CH2)(4)(+) acts as an electrophile. Protonation rather than alkylation of coordinated imidazolyl furnished cyclic imine complexes. Changing the donor atom of a coordinated thiazole from N to C by deprotonation and alkylation afforded a carbene complex. (C) 1999 Elsevier Science S.A. All rights reserved.

Study of electrochemical behavior of azoles for AISI 430 stainless steel in H(2)SO(4) 1 mol L(-1)

Corrosion is an undesirable process that occurs in metallic materials. Studied was the effect of inhibiting Benzotriazole (BTAH), Benzimidazole (BZM) and Indole in different concentrations-for the stainless steel (SS) AISI 430 in H(2)SO(4) mol The techniques employed this research were: anodic potenciostatic polarisation, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy The curves of anodic polarisation showed that BTAH, BZM and Indol act as corrosion inhibitors for 430 SS, at concentrations of 1x10(-3) and 5x10(-4) mol L(-1) but do not inhibit corrosion for concentrations equal to or less than 1x10(-4) mol L(-1). The in-crease of the efficiency in relation to the inhibitory substances studied followed this order: Indol

1,3-Azoles from ortho-naphthoquinones: Synthesis of aryl substituted imidazoles and oxazoles and their potent activity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis

Twenty-three naphthoimidazoles and six naphthoxazoles were synthesised and evaluated against susceptible and rifampicin- and isoniazid-resistant strains of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Among all the compounds evaluated, fourteen presented MIC values in the range of 0.78 to 6.25 mu g/mL against susceptible and resistant strains of M. tuberculosis, Five structures were solved by X-ray crystallographic analysis. These substances are promising antimycobacterial prototypes. (C) 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Ionic liquid-accelerated N-arylation of benzoazoles with diaryliodonium salts, an efficient method for the synthesis of N-aryl azoles

N-Arylation of benzoazoles with diaryliodonium salts can be performed in good yields in the room-temperature ionic liquid 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate ([bmim]BF4), which provides an efficient method for the synthesis of N-arylbenzoazoles. The ionic liquid can be recycled and reused.

New approach to study the real exposure to fungi in cork industry: nasal swabs mycobiota investigation coupled with screening on fungal resistance to azoles

The permanent contact with cork may lead to constant exposure to fungi, raising awareness as a potential occupational hazard in the cork industry.The presence of fungi belonging to the Penicillium glabrum complex has been associated with the development of respiratory diseases such as suberosis, one of the most prevalent diseases among workers from cork industries, besides occupational asthma. Azoles are used as pesticides but also the first line therapy in the treatment of Aspergillus infections; azole-resistance as been described as to have also an environmental source and is considered an emerging public health problem.The aim of this work was to characterize fungal distribution and to evaluate the presence of azole-resistant Aspergillus isolates in nose swab samples from the cork industry workers.

Mechanisms of azole resistance and carcinogenic acetaldehyde production in chronic mucosal candidosis

Autoimmune polyendocrinopathy-candidiasis-ectodermal dystrophy (APECED, APS1) is an autoimmune disease caused by a loss-of function mutation in the autoregulator gene (AIRE). Patients with APECED suffer from chronic mucocutaneous candidosis (CMC) of the oral cavity and oesophagus often since early childhood. The patients are mainly colonized with Candida albicans and decades of exposure to antifungal agents have lead to the development of clinical and microbiological resistance in the treatment of CMC in the APECED patient population in Finland. A high incidence of oral squamous cell carcinoma is associated with oral CMC lesions in the APECED patients over the age of 25. The overall aim of this study was firstly, to investigate the effect of long-term azole exposure on the metabolism of oral C. albicans isolates from APECED patients with CMC and secondly, to analyse the specific molecular mechanisms that are responsible for these changes. The aim of the first study was to examine C. albicans strains from APECED patients and the level of cross-resistance to miconazole, the recommended topical compound for the treatment of oral candidosis. A total of 16% of the strains had decreased susceptibility to miconazole and all of these isolates had decreased susceptibility to fluconazole. Miconazole MICs also correlated with MICs to voriconazole and posaconazole. A significant positive correlation between the years of miconazole exposure and the MICs to azole antifungal agents was also found. These included azoles the patients had not been exposed to. The aim of our second study was to determine if the APECED patients are continuously colonized with the same C. albicans strains despite extensive antifungal treatment and to gain a deeper insight into the genetic changes leading to azole resistance. The strains were typed using MLST and our results confirmed that all patients were persistently colonized with the same or a genetically related strain despite antifungal treatment between isolations. No epidemic strains were found. mRNA expression was analysed by Northern blotting, protein level by western blotting, and TAC1 and ERG11 genes were sequenced. The main molecular mechanisms resulting in azole resistance were gain-of-function mutations in TAC1 leading to over expression of CDR1 and CDR2, genes linked to azole resistance. Several strains had also developed point mutations in ERG11, another gene linked to azole resistance. In the third study we used gas chromatography to test whether the level of carcinogenic acetaldehyde produced by C. albicans strains isolated from APECED patients were different from the levels produced by strains isolated from healthy controls and oral carcinoma patients. Acetaldehyde is a carcinogenic product of alcohol fermentation and metabolism in microbes associated with cancers of the upper digestive tract. In yeast, acetaldehyde is a by-product of the pyruvate bypass that converts pyruvate into acetyl-CoA during fermentation. Our results showed that strains isolated from APECED patients produced mutagenic levels of acetaldehyde in the presence of glucose (100mM, 18g/l) and the levels produced were significantly higher than those from strains isolated from controls and oral carcinoma patients. All strains in the study, however, were found to produce mutagenic levels of acetaldehyde in the presence of ethanol (11mM). The glucose and ethanol levels used in this study are equivalent to those found in food and beverages and our results highlight the role of dietary sugars and ethanol on carcinogenesis. The aims of our fourth study were to research the effect of growth conditions in the levels of acetaldehyde produced by C. albicans and to gain deeper insight into the role of different genes in the pyruvate-bypass in the production of high acetaldehyde levels. Acetaldehyde production in the presence of glucose increased by 17-fold under moderately hypoxic conditions compared to the levels produced under normoxic conditions. Under moderately hypoxic conditions acetaldehyde levels did not correlate with the expression of ADH1 and ADH2, genes catalyzing the oxidation of ethanol to acetaldehyde, or PDC11, the gene catalyzing the oxidation of pyruvate to acetaldehyde but correlated with the expression of down-stream genes ALD6 and ACS1. Our results highlight a problem where indiscriminate use of azoles may influence azole susceptibility and lead to the development of cross-resistance. Despite clinically successful treatment leading to relief of symptoms, colonization by C. albicans strains is persistent within APECED patients. Microevolution and point mutations that occur in strains may lead to the development of azole-resistant isolates and metabolic changes leading to increased production of carcinogenic acetaldehyde.

Modificação química da poliacrilonitrila com grupos tetrazol assistida por micro-ondas

Nos últimos anos, a irradiação por micro-ondas tem sido cada vez mais usada na síntese de varias moléculas orgânicas, devido a uma série de vantagens que essa nova tecnologia apresenta. Até o momento, existem poucos estudos sobre polimerizações assistidas por micro-ondas e menos ainda sobre a modificação de polímeros usando essa nova fonte de energia. Polímeros heterocíclicos contendo anéis azóicos, como o tetrazol possuem interesse acadêmico e comercial devido as suas várias aplicações. Nesta Dissertação foi estuda a modificação química da poliacrilonitrila pela incorporação em sua cadeia polimérica de 10% de grupos tetrazol empregando-se a irradiação de micro-ondas e o método convencional (térmico). Foram utilizados um forno de micro-ondas doméstico e um reator de micro-ondas monomodo nas reações assistidas por micro-ondas. As reações em reator foram realizadas em vaso aberto, em solução (DMF) ou em massa, sendo variado o tempo e a temperatura reacional, bem como a potência do equipamento. Os copolímeros produzidos foram caracterizados por espectroscopia na região do infravermelho (FTIR) e os teores de grupos tetrazol incorporados na PAN foram determinados por titulometria de neutralização. A poliacrilonitrila foi modificada quimicamente com sucesso tanto no forno doméstico quanto no reator de micro-ondas, como foi verificado pela sua análise de FTIR. Pela determinação do grau de incorporação de grupos tetrazol nos polímeros concluiu-se que, para a reação em solução, nas temperaturas mais elevas, bem como em uma potência maior, o teor de heterocíclico incorporado no polímero está muito próximo do valor obtido pelo método convencional. Já as reações conduzidas em massa apresentaram graus de incorporação inferiores as das feitas em solução.

Mapeamento de proteínas alvo para novos antifúngicos na fração microssomal e citosólica do patógeno humano Aspergillus fumigatus

A incidência de infecções fúngicas invasivas vem aumentando nos últimos anos. Estas infecções, em geral, apresentam altas taxas de mortalidade. A profilaxia com antifúngicos ainda é a estratégia mais comum na contenção da mortalidade e prevenção contra infecções fúngicas invasivas, porém, apresenta baixa eficiência, e relatos de resistência às drogas. Além disso, a terapia antifúngica é limitada a um pequeno grupo de drogas, como os polienos, azóis e equinocandinas. Desta forma, a busca de novos alvos de drogas é fundamental para o desenvolvimento de novos antifúngicos. Estudos in silico indicaram quatro genes como potenciais alvo de drogas em fungos patogênicos. Neste contexto, o objetivo deste trabalho foi verificar a expressão das proteínas codificadas por dois destes possíveis genes alvo, a proteína erg6, na fração microssomal, e trr1, na fração citosólica, em hifas de A. fumigatus. Visando alcançar este objetivo, foram primeiramente padronizadas todas as etapas de fracionamento celular visando isolar estas duas subfrações celulares de A. fumigatus. Posteriormente, foi otimizado o protocolo de extração e reidratação de proteínas microssomais bem como reidratação de proteínas citosólicas. Estes extratos foram submetidos a diferentes protocolos de fracionamento proteico em um sistema de eletroforese OFFGEL (OGE). Os resultados de Western immunoblot mostraram que estas duas proteínas, erg6 e trr1, são de fato expressas na fase filamentosa de A. fumigatus. O extrato proteico da fração microssomal submetido ao OGE em doze subfrações apresentou três subunidades da proteína erg6, reconhecidas pelo anticorpo monoclonal, com massas moleculares e pI distintos: uma subunidade de aproximadamente 79 kDa com pI entre 5,91 e 6,49, e outras duas subunidades de aproximadamente 35 kDa e 32 kDa, ambas com pI entre 6,49 e 7,08. A enzima erg6 foi descrita como um homotetrâmero em outros fungos. Porém, nossos resultados sugerem que, em A. fumigatus, a erg6 possui uma estrutura heterotetramérica. Quanto à proteína trr1, tanto no extrato total quanto nas frações resultantes do fracionamento em OGE, uma banda única de aproximadamente 40 kDa, com pI na faixa de 4,79 e 5,33, foi reconhecida pelo anticorpo policlonal. Desta forma, esta proteína parece ter uma estrutura homodimérica, assim como descrito em outros micro-organismos.

PKC signaling regulates drug resistance of the fungal pathogen Candida albicans via circuitry comprised of Mkc1, calcineurin, and Hsp90.

Fungal pathogens exploit diverse mechanisms to survive exposure to antifungal drugs. This poses concern given the limited number of clinically useful antifungals and the growing population of immunocompromised individuals vulnerable to life-threatening fungal infection. To identify molecules that abrogate resistance to the most widely deployed class of antifungals, the azoles, we conducted a screen of 1,280 pharmacologically active compounds. Three out of seven hits that abolished azole resistance of a resistant mutant of the model yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae and a clinical isolate of the leading human fungal pathogen Candida albicans were inhibitors of protein kinase C (PKC), which regulates cell wall integrity during growth, morphogenesis, and response to cell wall stress. Pharmacological or genetic impairment of Pkc1 conferred hypersensitivity to multiple drugs that target synthesis of the key cell membrane sterol ergosterol, including azoles, allylamines, and morpholines. Pkc1 enabled survival of cell membrane stress at least in part via the mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascade in both species, though through distinct downstream effectors. Strikingly, inhibition of Pkc1 phenocopied inhibition of the molecular chaperone Hsp90 or its client protein calcineurin. PKC signaling was required for calcineurin activation in response to drug exposure in S. cerevisiae. In contrast, Pkc1 and calcineurin independently regulate drug resistance via a common target in C. albicans. We identified an additional level of regulatory control in the C. albicans circuitry linking PKC signaling, Hsp90, and calcineurin as genetic reduction of Hsp90 led to depletion of the terminal MAPK, Mkc1. Deletion of C. albicans PKC1 rendered fungistatic ergosterol biosynthesis inhibitors fungicidal and attenuated virulence in a murine model of systemic candidiasis. This work establishes a new role for PKC signaling in drug resistance, novel circuitry through which Hsp90 regulates drug resistance, and that targeting stress response signaling provides a promising strategy for treating life-threatening fungal infections.

Identification des réseaux transcriptionnnels de résistance aux antifongiques chez Candida albicans

Plusieurs souches cliniques de Candida albicans résistantes aux médicaments antifongiques azolés surexpriment des gènes encodant des effecteurs de la résistance appartenant à deux classes fonctionnelles : i) des transporteurs expulsant les azoles, CDR1, CDR2 et MDR1 et ii) la cible des azoles 14-lanostérol déméthylase encodée par ERG11. La surexpression de ces gènes est due à la sélection de mutations activatrices dans des facteurs de transcription à doigts de zinc de la famille zinc cluster (Zn2Cys6) qui contrôlent leur expression : Tac1p (Transcriptional activator of CDR genes 1) contrôlant l’expression de CDR1 et CDR2, Mrr1p (Multidrug resistance regulator 1), régulant celle de MDR1 et Upc2p (Uptake control 2), contrôlant celle d’ERG11. Un autre effecteur de la résistance clinique aux azoles est PDR16, encodant une transférase de phospholipides, dont la surexpression accompagne souvent celle de CDR1 et CDR2, suggérant que les trois gènes appartiennent au même régulon, potentiellement celui de Tac1p. De plus, la régulation transcriptionnelle du gène MDR1 ne dépend pas seulement de Mrr1p, mais aussi du facteur de transcription de la famille basic-leucine zipper Cap1p (Candida activator protein 1), un régulateur majeur de la réponse au stress oxydatif chez C. albicans qui, lorsque muté, induit une surexpression constitutive de MDR1 conférant la résistance aux azoles. Ces observations suggèrent qu’un réseau de régulation transcriptionnelle complexe contrôle le processus de résistance aux antifongiques azolés chez C. albicans. L’objectif de mon projet au doctorat était d’identifier les cibles transcriptionnelles directes des facteurs de transcription Tac1p, Upc2p et Cap1p, en me servant d’approches génétiques et de génomique fonctionnelle, afin de i) caractériser leur réseau transcriptionnel et les modules transcriptionnels qui sont sous leur contrôle direct, et ii) d’inférer leurs fonctions biologiques et ainsi mieux comprendre leur rôle dans la résistance aux azoles. Dans un premier volet, j’ai démontré, par des expériences de génétique, que Tac1p contrôle non seulement la surexpression de CDR1 et CDR2 mais aussi celle de PDR16. Mes résultats ont identifié une nouvelle mutation activatrice de Tac1p (N972D) et ont révélé la participation d’un autre régulateur dans le contrôle transcriptionnel de CDR1 et PDR16 dont l’identité est encore inconnue. Une combinaison d’expériences de transcriptomique et d’immunoprécipitation de la chromatine couplée à l’hybridation sur des biopuces à ADN (ChIP-chip) m’a permis d’identifier plusieurs gènes dont l’expression est contrôlée in vivo et directement par Tac1p (PDR16, CDR1, CDR2, ERG2, autres), Upc2p (ERG11, ERG2, MDR1, CDR1, autres) et Cap1p (MDR1, GCY1, GLR1, autres). Ces expériences ont révélé qu’Upc2p ne contrôle pas seulement l’expression d’ERG11, mais aussi celle de MDR1 et CDR1. Plusieurs nouvelles propriétés fonctionnelles de ces régulateurs ont été caractérisées, notamment la liaison in vivo de Tac1p aux promoteurs de ses cibles de façon constitutive et indépendamment de son état d’activation, et la liaison de Cap1p non seulement à la région du promoteur de ses cibles, mais aussi celle couvrant le cadre de lecture ouvert et le terminateur transcriptionnel putatif, suggérant une interaction physique avec la machinerie de la transcription. La caractérisation du réseau transcriptionnel a révélé une interaction fonctionnnelle entre ces différents facteurs, notamment Cap1p et Mrr1p, et a permis d’inférer des fonctions biologiques potentielles pour Tac1p (trafic et la mobilisation des lipides, réponse au stress oxydatif et osmotique) et confirmer ou proposer d’autres fonctions pour Upc2p (métabolisme des stérols) et Cap1p (réponse au stress oxydatif, métabolisme des sources d’azote, transport des phospholipides). Mes études suggèrent que la résistance aux antifongiques azolés chez C. albicans est intimement liée au métabolisme des lipides membranaires et à la réponse au stress oxydatif.

Développement de nouvelles formulations d’antifongiques et évaluation de l’activité sur Candida spp. et Aspergillus spp.

Les travaux effectués dans le cadre de cette thèse de doctorat avaient pour but de mettre au point des nouvelles formulations d’antifongiques sous forme de nanoparticules polymériques (NP) en vue d’améliorer l’efficacité et la spécificité des traitements antifongiques sur des souches sensibles ou résistantes de Candida spp, d’Aspergillus spp et des souches de Candida albicans formant du biofilm. Dans la première partie de ce travail, nous avons synthétisé et caractérisé un polymère à base de polyester-co-polyéther branché avec du poly(éthylène glycol) (PEG-g-PLA). En plus d’être original et innovant, ce co-polymère a l’avantage d’être non-toxique et de posséder des caractéristiques de libération prolongée. Trois antifongiques couramment utilisés en clinique et présentant une biodisponibilité non optimale ont été choisis, soient deux azolés, le voriconazole (VRZ) et l’itraconazole (ITZ) et un polyène, l’amphotéricine B (AMB). Ces principes actifs (PA), en plus des problèmes d’administration, présentent aussi d’importants problèmes de toxicité. Des NP polymériques encapsulant ces PA ont été préparées par une technique d’émulsion huile-dans-l’eau (H/E) suivie d’évaporation de solvant. Une fois fabriquées, les NP ont été caractérisées et des particules de d’environ 200 nm de diamètre ont été obtenues. Les NP ont été conçues pour avoir une structure coeur/couronne avec un coeur constitué de polymère hydrophobe (PLA) et une couronne hydrophile de PEG. Une faible efficacité de chargement (1,3% m/m) a été obtenue pour la formulation VRZ encapsulé dans des NP (NP/VRZ). Toutefois, la formulation AMB encapsulée dans des NP (NP/AMB) a montré des taux de chargement satisfaisants (25,3% m/m). En effet, le caractère hydrophobe du PLA a assuré une bonne affinité avec les PA hydrophobes, particulièrement l’AMB qui est le plus hydrophobe des agents sélectionnés. Les études de libération contrôlée ont montré un relargage des PA sur plusieurs jours. La formulation NP/AMB a été testée sur un impacteur en cascade, un modèle in vitro de poumon et a permis de démontrer le potentiel de cette formulation à être administrée efficacement par voie pulmonaire. En effet, les résultats sur l’impacteur en cascade ont montré que la majorité de la formulation s’est retrouvée à l’étage de collecte correspondant au niveau bronchique, endroit où se situent majoritairement les infections fongiques pulmonaires. Dans la deuxième partie de ces travaux, nous avons testé les nouvelles formulations d’antifongiques sur des souches planctoniques de Candida spp., d’Aspergillus spp. et des souches de Candida albicans formant du biofilm selon les procédures standardisées du National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards (NCCLS). Les souches choisies ont démontré des résistances aux azolés et aux polyènes. Les études d’efficacité in vitro ont permis de prouver hors de tout doute que les nouvelles formulations offrent une efficacité nettement améliorée comparée à l’agent antifongique libre. Pour mettre en lumière si l’amélioration de l’efficacité antifongique était due à une internalisation des NP, nous avons évalué le comportement des NP avec les cellules de champignons. Nous avons procédé à des études qualitatives de microscopie de fluorescence sur des NP marquées avec de la rhodamine (Rh). Tel qu’attendu, les NP ont montré une localisation intracellulaire. Pour exclure la possibilité d’une simple adhésion des NP à la surface des levures, nous avons aussi confirmé leur internalisation en microscopie confocale de fluorescence. Il est important de noter que peu d’études à ce jour ont mis l’accent sur l’élaboration de nouvelles formulations d’antifongiques à base de polymères non toxiques destinées aux traitements des mycoses, donnant ainsi une grande valeur et originalité aux travaux effectués dans cette thèse. Les résultats probants obtenus ouvrent la voie vers une nouvelle approche pour contourner les problèmes de résistances fongiques, un problème de plus en plus important dans le domaine de l’infectiologie.

Micoses sistémicas

Este trabalho teve como objetivo a análise das micoses sistémicas, no que respeita à sua identificação, morfologia dos agentes patogénicos que lhes dão origem, onde são endémicas, os sintomas que apresentam, os métodos de diagnóstico e as terapêuticas disponíveis para cada patologia. As micoses sistémicas são infeções causadas por fungos patogénicos primários que têm o trato respiratório como porta de entrada, e a partir daí podem disseminar-se por todo o organismo. Os agentes antifúngicos são usados no tratamento destas infeções, em que, no caso das infeções sistémicas, predominam o uso de cetoconazol (polieno), fluconazol e itraconazol (azóis). Existem ainda estudos que demonstram que as vacinas atenuadas podem ser usadas na profilaxia destas infeções. Com este trabalho conclui-se que as infeções fúngicas estão longe de ser extintas, uma vez que se verifica cada vez mais a existência de resistências por parte dos fungos aos fármacos, sendo o diagnóstico e a terapêutica usada dois parâmetros fundamentais para um tratamento eficaz.

Paralog re-emergence: a novel, historically contingent mechanism in the evolution of antimicrobial resistance

Evolution of resistance to drugs and pesticides poses a serious threat to human health and agricultural production. CYP51 encodes the target site of azole fungicides, widely used clinically and in agriculture. Azole resistance can evolve due to point mutations or overexpression of CYP51, and previous studies have shown that fungicide-resistant alleles have arisen by de novo mutation. Paralogs CYP51A and CYP51B are found in filamentous ascomycetes, but CYP51A has been lost from multiple lineages. Here, we show that in the barley pathogen Rhynchosporium commune, re-emergence of CYP51A constitutes a novel mechanism for the evolution of resistance to azoles. Pyrosequencing analysis of historical barley leaf samples from a unique long-term experiment from 1892 to 2008 indicates that the majority of the R. commune population lacked CYP51A until 1985, after which the frequency of CYP51A rapidly increased. Functional analysis demonstrates that CYP51A retains the same substrate as CYP51B, but with different transcriptional regulation. Phylogenetic analyses show that the origin of CYP51A far predates azole use, and newly sequenced Rhynchosporium genomes show CYP51A persisting in the R. commune lineage rather than being regained by horizontal gene transfer; therefore, CYP51A re-emergence provides an example of adaptation to novel compounds by selection from standing genetic variation.

Effect of azole fungicide mixtures, alternations and dose on azole sensitivity in the wheat pathogen Zymoseptoria tritici

The evolution of fungicide resistance in the cereal pathogen Zymoseptoria tritici, is a serious threat to the sustainability and profitability of wheat production in Europe. Application of azole fungicides has been shown to affect fitness of Z. tritici variants differentially, so it has been hypothesised that combinations of azoles could slow the evolution of resistance. This work was initiated to assess the effects of dose, mixtures and alternations of two azoles on selection for isolates with reduced sensitivity and on disease control. Naturally infected field trials were carried out at six sites across Ireland and the sensitivity of Z. tritici isolates monitored pre- and post-treatment. The azoles epoxiconazole and metconazole were applied as solo products, in alternation with each other and as a pre-formulated mixture. Full and half label doses were tested. The two azoles were partially cross-resistant, with a common azole resistance principal component accounting for 75% of the variation between isolates. Selection for isolates with reduced azole sensitivity was correlated with disease control. Decreased doses were related to decreases in sensitivity but the effect was barely significant (P = 0.1) and control was reduced. Single applications of an active ingredient (a.i.) caused smaller decreases in sensitivity than double applications. Shifts in sensitivity to the a.i. applied to a plot were greater than to the a.i. not applied, and the decrease in sensitivity was greater to the a.i. applied at the second timing. These results confirm the need to mix a.i.s with different modes of action.