Neural representation and clinically relevant moderators of individualised self-criticism in healthy subjects

Many people routinely criticise themselves. While self-criticism is largely unproblematic for most individuals, depressed patients exhibit excessive self-critical thinking, which leads to strong negative affects. We used functional magnetic resonance imaging in healthy subjects (N = 20) to investigate neural correlates and possible psychological moderators of self-critical processing. Stimuli consisted of individually selected adjectives of personally negative content and were contrasted with neutral and negative non-self-referential adjectives. We found that confrontation with self-critical material yielded neural activity in regions involved in emotions (anterior insula/hippocampus-amygdala formation) and in anterior and posterior cortical midline structures, which are associated with self-referential and autobiographical memory processing. Furthermore, contrasts revealed an extended network of bilateral frontal brain areas. We suggest that the co-activation of superior and inferior lateral frontal brain regions reflects the recruitment of a frontal top-down pathway, representing cognitive reappraisal strategies for dealing with evoked negative affects. In addition, activation of right superior frontal areas was positively associated with neuroticism and negatively associated with cognitive reappraisal. Although these findings may not be specific to negative stimuli, they support a role for clinically relevant personality traits in successful regulation of emotion during confrontation with self-critical material.

Having a word with yourself:neural correlates of self-criticism and self-reassurance

Self-criticism is strongly correlated with a range of psychopathologies, such as depression, eating disorders and anxiety. In contrast, self-reassurance is inversely associated with such psychopathologies. Despite the importance of self-judgements and evaluations, little is known about the neurophysiology of these internal processes. The current study therefore used a novel fMRI task to investigate the neuronal correlates of self-criticism and self-reassurance. Participants were presented statements describing two types of scenario, with the instruction to either imagine being self-critical or self-reassuring in that situation. One scenario type focused on a personal setback, mistake or failure, which would elicit negative emotions, whilst the second was of a matched neutral event. Self-criticism was associated with activity in lateral prefrontal cortex (PFC) regions and dorsal anterior cingulate (dAC), therefore linking self-critical thinking to error processing and resolution, and also behavioural inhibition. Self-reassurance was associated with left temporal pole and insula activation, suggesting that efforts to be self-reassuring engage similar regions to expressing compassion and empathy towards others. Additionally, we found a dorsal/ventral PFC divide between an individual's tendency to be self-critical or self-reassuring. Using multiple regression analyses, dorsolateral PFC activity was positively correlated with high levels of self-criticism (assessed via self-report measure), suggesting greater error processing and behavioural inhibition in such individuals. Ventrolateral PFC activity was positively correlated with high self-reassurance. Our findings may have implications for the neural basis of a range of mood disorders that are characterised by a preoccupation with personal mistakes and failures, and a self-critical response to such events.

Comprometimento Organizacional, Autocriticismo e Autocompaixão na PSP

Introdução: São poucos os estudos que em Portugal se dedicaram a explorar constructos como o autocriticismo, autocompaixão, saúde mental e o comprometimento organizacional. São nossos objetivos analisar estas associações na Polícia de Segurança Pública, considerando igualmente a influência de variáveis sociodemográficas e profissionais, bem como realizar análises preditivas que permitam verificar quais são as variáveis preditores do comprometimento organizacional. Metodologia: A amostra é constituída por 188 polícias com idades compreendidas entre os 30 e 56 anos (M = 43,75, DP = 5,66). Os participantes preencheram um protocolo integrante do projeto Organizar Positivamente do Instituto Superior Miguel Torga, composto por um questionário sociodemográfico, a SELFCS (Escala da Autocompaixão), a FSCRS (Escala das Formas do Autocriticismo e Autotranquilização), o MHI-5 (Mental Health Inventory) e o QCO (Questionário do Comprometimento Organizacional). Resultados: Os polícias parecem regular a sua relação com a organização através do comprometimento calculativo. A autocompaixão associa-se positivamente ao comprometimento afetivo, sobressaindo a capacidade de mindfulness. O autocriticismo, na forma eu inadequado - menos corrosivo que a forma eu detestado -, revela uma relação positiva com o comprometimento calculativo, pelo que a permanência na organização pode ser emocionalmente negativa, originar ataques ao eu e diminuir a capacidade afetiva. Porém, a capacidade autotranquilizadora (forma eu tranquilizador do autocriticismo) parece capacitar os polícias para o desenvolvimento de maiores níveis de comprometimento organizacional e afetivo. A idade, a antiguidade e menos habilitações literárias parecem favorecer o comprometimento calculativo. Discussão: A autocompaixão pode contribuir para uma atitude positiva e afetuosa do polícia para com a organização. Assim, através de uma intervenção baseada na autocompaixão e no mindfulness, com impacto positivo no comportamento afetivo e normativo, não só se poderá preservar e promover a saúde e o bem-estar dos polícias, mas também fomentar o empenho organizacional, atenuando os efeitos negativos da profissão policial. Esta abordagem poderá contribuir para os objetivos organizacionais, através da supressão das emoções aversivas, da diminuição da intenção de turnover e abandono da organização. / Introduction: There are few studies in Portugal that have been dedicated to explore constructs such as self-criticism, self-compassion, mental health and organizational commitment. Our goals are to analyze these associations at the Public Safety Police, considering also the influence of sociodemographic and professionals variables, as well as to conduct predictive analyses, in order to verify which variables may predict organizational commitment. Methodology: The sample consisted of 188 police with ages between 30 and 56 years (M = 43.75, SD = 5.66). The participants filled in a protocol from the project Organizar Positivamente, from Instituto Superior Miguel Torga, composed by a sociodemographic questionnaire, the SELFCS (Self-Compassion Scale), the FSCRS (Scale of Forms of Self-Criticism and Self-Reassurance, the MHI-5 (Mental Health Inventory) and the QCO (Organizational Commitment Questionnaire). Results: The police officers appear to regulate their relationship with the organization through calculative commitment. Self-compassion is associated positively to affective commitment, with mindfulness showing to be the most important competence in this professional group. Self-criticism, in its inadequate self form – which is less corrosive than the hated self form - reveals a positive relationship with calculative commitment, which might imply that staying in the organization may be emotionally negative, may provoke attacks against the self and diminish the affective capacity. However, the self reassurance capacity (reassure self form of self-criticism) may enable the police officers to develop higher levels of organizational commitment and affective commitment, as well. Age, seniority and fewer qualifications seem to support the calculative commitment. Discussion: Through self-compassion police officers may experience a positive and warmth attitude towards the organization. Thus, an intervention program based on self-compassion and mindfulness may stimulate affective and normative commitment, not only preserving and promoting health and the well-being of police officers, but also fostering organizational commitment and mitigating negative effects in the police profession. This approach may contribute to organizational goals’ through the suppression of aversive emotions, decreasing turnover and intention to abandon the organization.

Autocriticismo, Estima Corporal e Sintomas de Perturbação do Comportamento Alimentar em Adolescentes do Sexo Feminino, Praticantes de Ballet e Andebol

Introdução: As Perturbações do Comportamento Alimentar (PCA) constituem um grave problema de saúde pública. Poucos estudos em Portugal ligam esta temática a áreas como o autocriticismo e a estima corporal. Assim, são nossos objetivos principais: explorar, numa amostra de adolescentes do sexo feminino, as diferenças entre praticantes de ballet e praticantes de andebol, nos sintomas de PCA, índice de massa corporal (IMC), dimensões avaliativas da aparência e níveis de autocriticismo; analisar se níveis maiores de autocriticismo e uma visão mais depreciativa em termos de aparência se associam a níveis mais elevados de sintomas de PCA (nas duas modalidades desportivas). Em virtude das associações encontradas, pretendemos realizar análises preditivas, controlando a influência de sintomas de depressão, ansiedade e stress. Metodologia: A amostra é constituída por 105 adolescentes do sexo feminino (n = 52; 49,5% do ballet e n = 53; 50,5% do andebol) com idades compreendidas entre os 12 e 18 anos (M = 14,5; DP = 1,80). As participantes preencheram um protocolo composto por um questionário sociodemográfico, pela Escala de Autocriticismo e Autotranquilização (FSCRS), pelo Teste de Atitudes Alimentares-25 (TAA-25/EAT-25), pela Escala Estima Corporal (BES) e pela Escala Depressão Ansiedade e Stress (DASS-21). Resultados: Verificaram-se percentagens preocupantes de eventual PCA (ponto de corte de 19) nas praticantes de Ballet (7,7%) e de Andebol (9,4%). Quanto ao IMC, na amostra de praticantes de ballet, encontrou-se uma percentagem relevante de jovens com magreza (34,6%). As praticantes de Ballet e de Andebol apenas se diferenciaram no IMC e na dimensão FSCRS_eu inadequado (valores superiores nas praticantes de Andebol). Verificaram-se, na subamostra Ballet, associações significativas entre a Motivação para a Magreza e as formas de autocriticismo FSCRS_eu inadequado, FSCRS_eu detestado, FSCRS_eu tranquilizador e FSCRS_total e entre os Comportamentos Bulímicos e as formas de autocriticismo FSCRS_eu detestado e FSCRS_total. Na subamostra Andebol constataram-se associações significativas entre a Motivação para a Magreza e a forma de autocriticismo FSCRS_eu inadequado e FSCRS_total. A dimensão FSCRS_eu detestado mostrou predizer, na subamostra Ballet, a Motivação para a Magreza e os Comportamentos Bulímicos. Na subamostra Andebol o BES_Peso foi o preditor significativo da Motivação para a Magreza. Discussão: É preocupante a percentagem de eventual PCA (em ambas em subamostras) bem como a percentagem de jovens que praticam Ballet com um IMC indicador de magreza, principalmente por serem jovens atletas e estarem mais focadas no seu corpo e forma física, estando mais vulneráveis ao desenvolvimento da patologia. É um contributo fundamental deste trabalho verificar associações (bem como o papel preditivo) nestas duas modalidades desportivas, separadamente, entre as formas de autocriticismo e as dimensões do TAA-25 Motivação para a Magreza e Comportamentos Bulímicos. Parece essencial o desenvolvimento de ações de sensibilização junto dos professores/treinadores, com o intuito de despertar uma maior atenção para a visão crítica das suas bailarinas/atletas em relação ao seu corpo, que parece influenciar as suas atitudes alimentares. Será importante iniciar estas ações/intervenções precocemente (antes mesmo da adolescência) não esquecendo a inclusão das figuras paternas, com vista a melhorar o seu sucesso, tendo consciência que particularmente no “nicho” desportivo do ballet a imagem/aparência e o peso continuam e continuarão, muito provavelmente, a ser valorizados e reforçados. / Introduction: Eating Disorders are a major public health problem. Few studies in Portugal associate this theme with areas such as self-criticism and body esteem. Thus, our main objectives are: to explore, in a sample of female adolescents, the differences between ballet and handball practitioners as to symptoms of eating disorders, body mass index (BMI) and evaluative dimensions of appearance and self-criticism levels; to analyze whether higher levels of self-criticism and a more derogatory vision in terms of appearance are associated with higher levels of PCA symptoms (in both sports). Having these associations into account, we intend to perform predictive analysis, controlling the influence of symptoms of depression, anxiety and stress. Methodology: Our sample is composed by 105 female adolescents (n = 52; 49.5% from ballet and n = 53; 50.5% from handball) with ages between 12 and 18 years (M = 14.5; DP = 1.80). The participants filled in a protocol composed by a sociodemographic questionnaire, the Forms of Self-Criticizing and Reassuring Scale (FSCRS), the Eating Attitudes Test-25 (TAA-25/EAT-25), the Body Esteem Scale (BES) and Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale (DASS-21). Results: There were worrying percentages of eventual PCA (cutoff of 19) in Ballet practitioners (7.7%) and Handball (9.4%). As to the BMI, in the sample of practitioners of ballet we found a significant percentage of young people with malnutrition (34.6%). Ballet and Handball practitioners only differed in BMI and in the inadequate self form (higher values in Handball practitioners). In the Ballet subsample there were significant associations between Motivation for thinness and forms of self-criticism, inadequate self form, hated self form, reassure self form and total self criticism and between Bulimic behaviors and inadequate self form and total self criticism. In the Handball subsample, significant associations were found between Motivation for thinness, the inadequate self form and total self criticism. The hated self form predicted, in the Ballet subsample, Motivation for thinness and Bulimic behaviors. In the subsample Handball BES_Weight was the significant predictor of Motivation for thinness. Discussion: The percentage of any Eating Disorders (in both subsamples) and the percentage of young people who practice ballet with a IMC indicating thinness is worrying, especially in young athletes who are more focused on their body and physical form, being more vulnerable to develop these disorders/symptoms. A major contribution of this work is to have shown the associations (as well as the predictive role), in these two sports, separately, between self-criticism forms and the TAA-25 dimensions Motivation for thinness and Bulimic behaviors. It seems essential to develop awareness-raising among teachers/trainers, in order to raise greater attention to the critical view of their dancers / athletes in relation to their body, which seems to influence their eating attitudes. It will be important to start these actions/interventions earlier (even before adolescence) not forgetting the inclusion of parents in order to improve their success, particularly in the ballet “niche”, where image/appearance and weight will most likely continue to be valued and reinforced.

The Associations Between the Maladaptive Personality Dimensions of Neediness and Self-Criticism, Defense Styles, Selfobject Needs, and Attachment Styles in an Iranian Sample

The present study extends previous findings by examining whether defense styles, selfobject needs, attachment styles relate to Neediness and Self-Criticism, as maladaptive personality dimensions focused, respectively, on relatedness and self-definition in an Iranian sample. Three hundred and fifty two participants completed a socio-demographic questionnaire as well as the Persian forms of the Depressive Experiences Questionnaire, Experience of Close Relationships-Revised, Defense Style Questionnaire, Beck Depression Inventory–II and Selfobject Needs Inventory. Two Multiple Linear Regression Analyses, entering Self-criticism and Neediness as criterion variables, were computed. According to the results high Attachment anxiety, high Immature defenses, high depressive symptoms, and high need for idealization were related to self-criticism, and explained 47% of its variance. In addition, high attachment anxiety, low mature defenses, high neurotic defenses, high avoidance of mirroring, and low avoidance of idealization/twinship were related to neediness, and explained 40% of its variance. A Principal Component Analysis was performed, entering all the studied variables. Three factors emerged; one describing a maladaptive form of psychological functioning and two describing more mature modes of psychological functioning. The results are discussed in their implications for the understanding of neediness and self-criticism as maladaptive personality dimensions focused, respectively, on relatedness and self-definition.

Auto-compaixão: a sua relação com os estados emocionais negativos

O principal objectivo do presente estudo é perceber de que forma a auto – compaixão se relaciona com o auto – criticismo e sintomas psicopatológicos, mais concretamente, a ansiedade, a depressão e o stress na adolescência. Paralelamente pretendeu-se testar a aplicação da escala de auto – compaixão a uma amostra de adolescentes pelo que se procedeu à sua adaptação e estudo das qualidades psicométricas a este período desenvolvimental específico. Fizeram parte da amostra 130 rapazes e 48 raparigas, com uma média de idades de 16.92 anos (DP=1.40) e uma média de anos de escolaridade de 9.99 (DP=1.67). No estudo apresentado foram utilizados os seguintes instrumentos: a Escala de Auto – Compaixão (SCS), a Escala de Ansiedade Depressão e Stress (EADS-21), e a Escala das Formas de Auto – Criticismo e de Auto – Tranquilização (FSCRS). A escala de auto – compaixão mostrou uma boa consistência interna e uma boa estabilidade temporal. Os resultados indicaram que os rapazes apresentam níveis de auto – compaixão significativamente mais elevados que as raparigas. Em ambos os sexos foram observadas correlações no sentido esperado entre a auto – compaixão e os estados emocionais negativos, o auto – criticismo e a auto – tranquilização. Por outras palavras, quanto maior o nível de auto – compaixão do adolescente, menor sintomatologia depressiva, ansiosa e associada ao stress apresenta, bem como menor é o seu auto – criticismo. Em contraste, quanto maior a auto – compaixão, maior a capacidade de se auto – tranquilizar. Conclusão: Partindo da investigação disponível em adultos, o contribuo do presente estudo consistiu em alargar para adolescentes não só a avaliação da auto-compaixão, como também a sua associação às variáveis em estudo. Assim, os resultados sugerem que nos adolescentes, a auto-compaixão pode diminuir a sua vulnerabilidade aos estados emocionais negativos traduzidos, quer por sintomas de ansiedade, depressão e de stress, quer pela adopção de um estilo auto-crítico exacerbado e disfuncional. / The main objective of this study is to understand how self - compassion is related to the self - criticism and psychopathological symptoms, specifically, anxiety, depression and stress in adolescence. At the same time we sought to test the application of the scale of self-pity to a sample of adolescents and it is carried to its adaptation and psychometric study of this specific developmental period. The sample included 130 boys and 48 girls with a mean age of 16.92 years (SD = 1.40) and average years of schooling was 9.99 (SD = 1.67). In the present study we used the following instruments: the Self - Compassion (SCS), Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale (DASS), and the Forms of Self – Criticizing/Attacking and Self – Reassuring Scale (FSCRS). The scale of self- compassion showed good internal consistency and good temporal stability. The results indicated that the boys present levels of self - compassion significantly higher than girls. In both sexes were observed in the expected correlations between self-pity and negative emotional states, self-criticism and self-reassurance. In other words, the higher the level of adolescent self-pity, less depressive symptoms, anxiety and stress associated with the present as well as lower your self-criticism. In contrast, the larger the self-compassion, the greater the ability to self-reassuring. Conclusion: Based on the available research in adults, I contribute to this study was to extend to adolescents not only the assessment of self- compassion, as well as their association with variables. Thus, the results suggest that in adolescents, self- compassion can reduce their vulnerability to negative emotional states translated, either by symptoms of anxiety, depression and stress, either by adopting a self-critical style exaggerated and dysfunctional.

Comprometimento Organizacional, Autocriticismo e Autocompaixão em Profissionais/Cuidadores Formais que Trabalham com Pessoas com Deficiência/Doença Mental

Introdução: Alguns estudos internacionais e nacionais têm-se dedicado a estudar as caraterísticas psicológicas de profissionais/cuidadores que trabalham na área da prestação de cuidados a pessoas com doença e deficiência mental. Porém, segundo temos conhecimento são escassos ou mesmo inexistentes os estudos que abordem os níveis de autocriticismo, autocompaixão e comprometimento organizacional destes profissionais/cuidadores. Foram nossos objetivos: caraterizar uma amostra de cuidadores formais/profissionais que trabalham com pessoas com doença e deficiência mental em diferentes variáveis sociodemográficas e profissionais; analisar os níveis de autocriticismo, autocompaixão e comprometimento organizacional destes cuidadores formais/profissionais, bem como explorar as associações entre todas estas variáveis (entre si e com as variáveis sociodemográficas e profissionais). Metodologia: 55 cuidadores formais de pessoas com doença/deficiência mental (sexo feminino/n = 49, 84,5%; idade média de 45,21; DP = 10,92; variação = 22-65) preencheram um questionário sociodemográfico, o Questionário de Comprometimento Organizacional, a Escala das Formas do Autocriticismo e Autotranquilização e a Escala de Autocompaixão. Resultados: O Eu inadequado apresentou um valor médio bastante maior que o Eu detestado. O valor médio do Eu tranquilizador foi superior a qualquer dimensão de autocriticismo. O Calor-Compreensão (autocompaixão) apresentou o valor médio mais elevado e a Autocrítica o valor médio mais baixo. O Eu inadequado e detestado associaram-se positivamente às dimensões negativas de autocompaixão e o Eu tranquilizador às dimensões positivas de autocompaixão. O Comprometimento Afetivo associou-se positivamente ao Autocriticismo total. O Comprometimento Calculativo associou-se positivamente ao Eu detestado, que foi seu preditor. O Comprometimento Normativo associou-se de forma positiva ao Eu detestado, Autocriticismo total e idade negativamente ao Mindfulness. A idade foi o seu preditor. O Comprometimento Afetivo associou-se positivamente aos meses de trabalho na instituição, que foram seus preditores. Os cuidadores com um familiar com deficiência mental tiveram um valor mais baixo de Eu inadequado. Discussão: No geral, esta amostra de cuidadores formais apresentou caraterísticas psicológicas que nos tranquilizam quanto ao papel que desempenham junto de pessoas com doença/deficiência mental, mas as instituições devem sempre encontrar formas de estimular os níveis de comprometimento e autocompaixão dos seus profissionais. / Introduction: Some international and national studies have focused on studying the psychological characteristics of professionals/caregivers working with people with mental disease and intelectual disability. However, to our knowledge, the studies exploring levels of selfcriticism, self-compassion and organizational commitment in these professionals are scarce or even nonexistent. Our goals were to: characterize a sample of formal caregivers/professionals who work with people with mental illness and intellectual in different sociodemographic and professional variables; analyze the levels of selfcriticism, self-compassion and organizational commitment of these formal caregivers/professionals, as well as explore the associations between all these variables (with each other and with the sociodemographic and professional variables and professionals). Methodology: 55 caregivers of people with mental disease/intelectual disability (female/n = 49, 84.5%; mean age of 45,21; DP = 10,92; variation = 22-65) completed a sociodemographic questionnaire, the Organizational Commitment questionnaire, the Forms of Self Criticism Rating Scale and the Self- Compassion Scale. Results: Inadequate Self had na higher mean value than the Hated Self. The mean value of the Reassuring Self was higher than any dimension of selfcriticism. Self-Kindness was the one with a higher mean value (of self-compassion) and Self-Judjment the one with the lowest mean value. The Inadequate Self and the Hated Self were positively associated with the negative dimensions of selfcompassion and the Reassuring Self with the positive dimensions of selfcompassion. The Affective Commitment was positively associated to total selfcriticism. The Continuance Commitment was associated with the Hated Self (positively), being its predictor. The Normative Commitment was positively associated to the Hated Self, the total selfcriticism and age and negatively to Mindfulness. Age was its predictor. The Affective Commitment was positively associated to months of work at the institution. This variable was its predictor. Professionals with a family member with intellectual disability had a lower value of Inadequate Self. Discussion: In general, this sample of formal caregivers presented psychological characteristics that reassure us about the role that they have while working with people with mental disease/intellectual disability, but the institutions must always find ways of stimulating the commitment and selfcompassion levels of their professionals.

Difficulties generating self-compassion: An interpretative phenomenological analysis

The aim of the present study was to make an idiographic investigation about the difficulties that are encountered by people who self-identify as having difficulties with self-compassion. Although a growing number of studies have been carried out concerning the concept of self-compassion, most research designs were quantitative. Based on this gap, the current study expanded the scope to include a qualitative dimension of the recent literature on self-compassion and Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) was adopted as methodological preference, which particularly monitors the lived experience of participants. In consequence of four in-depth semi-structured interviews, four super-ordinate themes emerged; the double-edged-sword: perfectionism, the flaws of compassion, the effects of a third person, and the advantages of self-criticism. In line with pre-existing research, these findings explored the reasons behind self-undermining behaviours and misconstructions about self-compassion, which are a barrier to gentle self-talk. Furthermore, unfavourable effects of the social environment prime participants to maladaptive perfectionism and excessive self-criticism, which are considered a success formula by the participants. This study's purpose is to present a detailed roadmap about the self-destructive journey of the people with low self-compassion. It will help researchers and clinicians to develop future interventions in order to cultivate kind and encouraging attitudes in self-critical people.

O papel das competências emocionais no processo de autoeficácia académica em crianças do 1.º Ciclo do Ensino Básico

Dissertação de Mestrado, Psicologia da Educação, especialidade em Contextos Educativos, 3 de Março de 2016, Universidade dos Açores.

Validation of the Flexibility of Responses to Self-Critical Thoughts Scale (FoReST) in a clinical population

Background: The Flexibility of Responses to Self-Critical Thoughts Scale (FoReST) is a questionnaire that was developed to assess whether people can be psychologically flexible when experiencing critical thoughts about themselves. This measure could have important application for evaluating third wave therapies such as Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) and Compassion Focused therapy (CFT). This study investigated the validity (concurrent, predictive and incremental), internal consistency and factor structure of the FoReST in a sample of people experiencing mental health difficulties. Method: A total of 132 individuals attending Primary Care and Community Mental Health Teams within NHS Greater Glasgow and Clyde (NHS GGC) and Psychological Therapy Teams within NHS Lanarkshire participated in this study. Participants completed a battery of assessments that included the FoReST and related measures of similar constructs (psychological flexibility, self-compassion and self-criticism) and measures of mental health and well-being. A cross-sectional correlational design was used. Results: An Exploratory factor analysis described an interpretable 2-factor structure within the items of the FoReST: unworkable action and experiential avoidance. The FoReST demonstrated good internal consistency ( = .89). Concurrent validity was supported through moderate to strong correlations with similar measures and moderate correlations with other mental health and well-being outcomes. Conclusions: The FoReST appears to be a valid assessment measure for using with individuals experiencing mental health difficulties. This new measure will be of use for practitioners using ACT, CFT and those integrating both, to help monitor the process of change in flexibility and self-critical thinking across therapy. Further longitudinal studies are required to assess the test-retest reliability of the FoReST.

Socialist Realism instead of Formalism : the Formation and Development of the Soviet Music Control System 1932-1950

Whereas it has been widely assumed in the public that the Soviet music policy system had a “top-down” structure of control and command that directly affected musical creativity, in fact my research shows that the relations between the different levels of the music policy system were vague, and the viewpoints of its representatives differed from each other. Because the representatives of the party and government organs controlling operas could not define which kind of music represented Socialist Realism, the system as it developed during the 1930s and 1940s did not function effectively enough in order to create such a centralised control of Soviet music, still less could Soviet operas fulfil the highly ambiguous aesthetics of Socialist Realism. I show that musical discussions developed as bureaucratic ritualistic arenas, where it became more important to reveal the heretical composers, making scapegoats of them, and requiring them to perform self-criticism, than to give directions on how to reach the artistic goals of Socialist Realism. When one opera was found to be unacceptable, this lead to a strengthening of control by the party leadership, which lead to more operas, one after the other, to be revealed as failures. I have studied the control of the composition, staging and reception of the opera case-studies, which remain obscure in the West despite a growing scholarly interest in them, and have created a detailed picture of the foundation and development of the Soviet music control system in 1932-1950. My detailed discussion of such case-studies as Ivan Dzerzhinskii’s The Quiet Don, Dmitrii Shostakovich’s Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk District, Vano Muradeli’s The Great Friendship, Sergei Prokofiev’s Story of a Real Man, Tikhon Khrennikov’s Frol Skobeev and Evgenii Zhukovskii’s From All One’s Heart backs with documentary precision the historically revisionist model of the development of Soviet music. In February 1948, composers belonging to the elite of the Union of Soviet Composers, e.g. Dmitri Shostakovich and Sergei Prokofiev, were accused in a Central Committee Resolution of formalism, as been under the influence of western modernism. Accusations of formalism were connected to the criticism of the conciderable financial, material and social privileges these composers enjoyed in the leadership of the Union. With my new archival findings I give a more detailed picture of the financial background for the 1948 campaign. The independent position of the music funding organization of the Union of Soviet Composers (Muzfond) to decide on its finances was an exceptional phenomenon in the Soviet Union and contradicted the strivings to strengthen the control of Soviet music. The financial audits of the Union of Soviet Composers did not, however, change the elite status of some of its composers, except for maybe a short duration in some cases. At the same time the independence of the significal financial authorities of Soviet theatres was restricted. The cuts in the governmental funding allocated to Soviet theatres contradicted the intensified ideological demands for Soviet operas.

Gure buruaren onarpenetik, gizakion errespetura

[eus] Gaur egungo eskoletan, oraindik ere, zoritxarrez, behar besteko garrantzirik ematen ez zaion eta sendotu behar den ikasleen autoezagutza fisikoaren inguruan, honako landa-lana diseinatu eta ikasleekin burutu egin da, hauengan aldaketa bat sortarazteko asmoarekin. Horretarako, prestatutako ariketa desberdinen bitartez, ikasleen arrazonamendu maila, baita maila emozionala ere landu egin da. Kontuan izanda, autoezagutzan, aldaketak epe luzean ematen direla, esku-hartze honen bidez ez dira aldaketa handirik edo esanguratsurik nabarmendu. Dena den, errespetuaren balorea ikasleengan transmititzea lortu egin da. Hori dela eta, landa lana burutu eta gero, egindakoaren inguruan, autokritika egin da.

工科大学生心理应激、应对与自我概念的关系研究

In the period of college, an individual matures rapidly in all aspects. College engineering students are the important parts of undergraduates. The state of an individual’s mental health may affect and even decide his future life and work. The level of the student’s self-concept and the kind of coping styles the students adopt are directly related to their mental health. So, it is significant to study the psychological stress, coping and self-concept of college engineering students for the mental health education and research of college engineering students. Based on overviews of former research, with the China College Student Psychological Stress Scale, the Coping Styles Scale and the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale, 559 college engineering students were investigated to explore the characteristics of and the relationship between the psychological stress, coping styles and self-concept of college engineering students. The results showed: 1. The stresses of learning, living and daily hassles were the main psychological stresses of college engineering students. There were significant differences in psychological stress between students from the countryside and those from urban areas, between needy students and non-needy students, between single-parent students and non-single-parent students, among students from different grades, with different academic achievements and of different postgraduate targets, between student party members and non-party members, between student cadres and non-cadres. However, there were no significant differences between male and female, between those from single-child families and from multiple-child families. 2. The coping styles of solving problem, seeking help and rationalization were the main coping styles of college engineering students. There were significant differences in the coping styles between needy students and non-needy students, among students from different grades, with different academic achievements and of different postgraduate targets, between student party members and non-party members, between student cadres and non-cadres. However, there were no significant differences between students from the countryside and from urban areas, between male and female, between single-parent students and non-single-parent students, between those from single-child families and from multiple-child families. 3. The self-concept of college engineering students was positive in general. There were significant differences in self-concept between students from the countryside and those from urban areas, between male and female, between needy students and non-needy students, between single-parent students and non-single-parent students, among students from different grades, with different academic achievements and of different postgraduate targets, between student party members and non-party members, between student cadres and non-cadres. However, there were no significant differences between those from single-child families and from multiple-child families. 4. The psychological stress had significantly negative correlation to the immature coping styles, and had partial correlation to the mature coping styles. Coping style has significant predictability on psychological stress. 5. The positive factors of the self-concept had significantly negative correlation to psychological stress, but self-criticism had positive correlation to psychological stress. There are significant differences between high self-concept students and low self-concept students for psychological stress. Self-concept has significant predictability on psychological stress. 6. The positive factors of the self-concept had significantly negative correlation to the coping styles of self-blame, illusion, avoidance, and rationalization, but had significantly positive correlation to the coping style of solving problem and seeking help. Self-criticism had significantly negative correlation to the coping styles of self-blame, illusion, avoidance, and rationalization. There are significant differences between high self-concept students and low self-concept students for coping styles. Self-concept has significant predictability on coping styles. 7. The self-concept of college engineering students had an effect on psychological stress by coping styles. However, the effect by the immature coping styles was higher than that to the mental health directly, and the effect by the mature and mixed coping styles was slighter than that to the mental health directly. According to the results, improving the college engineering students’ self-concept level and establishing right self-concept, developing the middle school student’ active coping styles and overcoming the negative coping styles are essential and important to the college engineering students’ mental health and provide useful clues for the psychological education of the college engineering students.

Understanding Simple Picture Programs

What are the characteristics of the process by which an intent is transformed into a plan and then a program? How is a program debugged? This paper analyzes these questions in the context of understanding simple turtle programs. To understand and debug a program, a description of its intent is required. For turtle programs, this is a model of the desired geometric picture. a picture language is provided for this purpose. Annotation is necessary for documenting the performance of a program in such a way that the system can examine the procedures behavior as well as consider hypothetical lines of development due to tentative debugging edits. A descriptive framework representing both causality and teleology is developed. To understand the relation between program and model, the plan must be known. The plan is a description of the methodology for accomplishing the model. Concepts are explicated for translating the global intent of a declarative model into the local imperative code of a program. Given the plan, model and program, the system can interpret the picture and recognize inconsistencies. The description of the discrepancies between the picture actually produced by the program and the intended scene is the input to a debugging system. Repair of the program is based on a combination of general debugging techniques and specific fixing knowledge associated with the geometric model primitives. In both the plan and repairing the bugs, the system exhibits an interesting style of analysis. It is capable of debugging itself and reformulating its analysis of a plan or bug in response to self-criticism. In this fashion, it can qualitatively reformulate its theory of the program or error to account for surprises or anomalies.