The social patterning of health, smoking and drinking in Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Finland in 1994-2004

The Baltic countries share public health problems typical of most Eastern European transition economies: morbidity and mortality from non-communicable diseases is higher than in Western European countries. This situation has many similarities compared to a neighbouring country, Finland during the late 1960s. There are reasons to expect that health disadvantage may be increasing among the less advantaged population groups in the Baltic countries. The evidence on social differences in health in the Baltic countries is, however, scattered to studies using different methodologies making comparisons difficult. This study aims to bridge the evidence gap by providing comparable standardized cross-sectional and time trend analyses to the social patterning of variation in health and two key health behaviours i.e. smoking and drinking in Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Finland in 1994-2004 representing Eastern European transition countries and a stable Western European country. The data consisted of similar cross-sectional postal surveys conducted in 1994, 1996, 1998, 2000, 2002 and 2004 on adult populations (aged 20 64 years) in Estonia (n=9049), Latvia (n=7685), Lithuania (n=11634) and Finland (n=18821) in connection with the Finbalt Health Monitor project. The main statistical method was logistic regression analysis. Perceived health was found to be worse among both men and women in the Baltic countries than in Finland. Poor health was associated with older age and lower education in all countries studied. Urbanization and marital status were not consistently related to health. The existing educational inequalities in health remained generally stable over time from 1994 to 2004. In the Baltic countries, however, improvement in perceived health was mainly found among the better educated men and women. Daily smoking was associated with young age, lower education and psychological distress in all countries. Among women smoking was also associated with urbanisation in all countries except Estonia. Among Lithuanian women, the educational gradient in smoking was weakest, and the overall prevalence of smoking increased over time. Drinking was generally associated with young age among men and women, and with education among women. Better educated women were more often frequent drinkers and less educated binge drinkers. The exception was that in Latvian men and women both frequent drinking and binge drinking were associated with low education. In conclusion, the Baltic countries are likely to resemble Western European countries rather than other transition societies. While health inequalities did not markedly change, substantial inequalities do remain, and there were indications of favourable developments mainly among the better educated. Pressures towards increasing health inequalities may therefore be visible in the future, which would be in accordance with the results on smoking and drinking in this study.

Uuden median murros Alma Mediassa, Sanoma Oy:ssä ja Yleisradiossa 1994-2004

This is a qualitative and multimethodological comparative study, which consists of two main parts: examining the development of new media and analysing and comparing the new media strategies of the three companies studied (Alma Media, Sanoma and the Finnish Broadcasting Company Yleisradio). The study includes the first large-scale review in Finnish of the development of new media, paying attention to the birth of the Internet as well as to mobile media, web TV and any other element of new media. It also concentrates on the function of electronic distribution channels before the age of the Internet, e.g. cable text and videotext. Answers about how the three traditional Finnish media houses began spreading their content to the Internet and wireless applications in 1994–2004 are also given. In researching the new media strategies the study pays special attention to the attitudes that the three media companies adopted towards the Internet and other forms of new media in their strategies during the years in question. By analysing and comparing, e.g., the companies’ strategies and their investments, the study ascertains whether the companies had a joint functional model in adopting new media or acted totally on their own without taking too much notice of the media field overall. The study makes extensive use of previously published material. The researcher has also interviewed almost twenty people who were involved in getting the companies’ new media functions under way. The methods for the interviews were dialogue and snowball sampling. The researcher has created a classification in which he divides the business strategies into four different categories: active strategy, careful strategy, permissive strategy, and passive strategy. In comparing and analysing the companies the researcher has used the classification devised by Allan Afuah & Christopher L. Tucci. The seven element classification consists of dominant managerial logic, competency trap, fear of cannibalisation and loss of revenue, channel conflict, political power, co-opetitor power and emotional attachment. In analysing the company strategies the researcher has also noted the classifications of convergence made by Everette E. Dennis and Graham Murdock as well as the aspects formulated by Sylvia Chan-Olmsted and Louisa Ha concerning the success of the companies in adopting the Internet into their functions. Based on all these classifications and by further developing them the researcher analyses and compares the success of the new media strategies of the three Finnish companies. The outcome of the study is a conclusion as to what kind of strategies the companies have carried out their new media functions and how they have succeeded in it.

A review of glaucoma treatment in Scotland 1994-2004

Objective: This study evaluated the changing trends in glaucoma management in Scotland between 1994 and 2004. Methods: A retrospective analysis of national health statistics in Scotland from 1994 to 2004. The Scottish morbidity record was used to collect information on all episodes of trabeculectomy. Data on number of prescriptions were gathered for individual drugs and also for groups of active ingredient. The population likely to have glaucoma (PLG) was calculated from estimates of prevalence in individuals aged 40 years and older, based on published epidemiological studies. The outcome measures were trabeculectomy rates, corrected for population likely to be at risk of glaucoma (PLG), and prescribing volume and cost for glaucoma medications. Results: Trabeculectomy rates have fallen by 67% from 46 per 1000 PLG in 1994 to 15.4 per 1000 PLG in 2004. Over the same time period, the population likely to be at risk of glaucoma (PLG) increased by 16.6%. The cost of prescribing has increased by 122% over 11 years compared with an increase in number of items per 1000 PLG by 27.5%. In 1994, ß-blockers accounted for 65.2% of prescribed drugs but by 2004 this had dropped to 33%. Since their introduction, the prescribing of prostaglandin analogues has increased rapidly and in 2004, they accounted for 39.4% of prescribed drugs. Conclusion: The increasing useof prostaglandin analogues has led to an increase in prescribing rates and a rapid increase in cost. At the same time, prescribing of ß-blockers has declined and trabeculectomy rates have fallen.

Papel de la Organización de Naciones Unidas ONU (MINUGUA) en el proceso de reconstrucción posconflicto guatemalteco en materia de justicia transicional (1994-2004). Un estado del arte

Estado del arte que recopila pronunciamientos de diversos autores sobre el papel de la Organización de Naciones Unidas, específicamente la Misión MINUGUA, en el proceso de reconstrucción posconflicto en Guatemala comprendido entre el año 1994 y 2004. Se basa en algunas dimensiones de la democratización como son el Estado de Derecho, la democracia representativa, la preeminencia del poder civil, y el fortalecimiento de la cultura democrática. Así mismo, tiene en cuenta los elementos de la justicia transicional, a saber: verdad, justicia y reparación.

Orientación de la política de familia en Colombia periodo de 1994-2004

En esta monografía se tomaron algunos programas específicos del ICBF que a lo largo de la monografía se podrá apreciar en que consisten. A partir de ellos, se podrá analizar y concluir por una parte, si se dirigen y se orientan hacia el desarrollo integral de la familia y por otra parte, si los programas se ajustan a la perspectiva de familia expuesta por Rodrigo Guerra.

Efectividad del mecanismo financiero del protocolo de Montreal en Colombia 1994-2004

Esta monografía busca estudiar y evaluar la efectividad del Mecanismo Financiero del Protocolo de Montreal Relativo a las Sustancias que Agotan la Capa de Ozono. El estudio se centra en la efectividad que dicho mecanismo ha tenido en Colombia, como país en desarrollo que ha obtenido algunos beneficios del mismo desde 1994, cuando se hizo Parte del Protocolo y hasta 2004, período en el cual, se ha implementado este instrumento en el país para contribuir a la solución mundial al problema del agotamiento de la capa de ozono, a través de la eliminación del consumo de las sustancias químicas que producen ese efecto y alentando la conciencia ambiental.

La cooperación internacional y la participación social:el caso del laboratorio de paz de la Unión Europea en Barrancabermeja y San Pablo (1994-2004)

En consecuencia, este trabajo pretende hacer énfasis en una de las 3 formas o niveles de participación con la que la comunidad internacional o los actores internacionales han intervenido en los conflictos internos durante el periodo de la posguerra fría, como lo son los programas y/o proyectos de desarrollo socioeconómico9, por lo que se parte de la siguiente hipótesis: El capital social, como instrumento generador de empoderamiento y participación social, es un componente que favorece al desarrollo de las comunidades. Por lo tanto, el Laboratorio de Paz de la Unión Europea a pesar de no poder inferir directamente en el aumento o disminución de la violación a los derechos humanos en municipios como Barrancabermeja y San Pablo, sí ha fortalecido la población a través de la participación en los espacios de deliberación públicos y democráticos como lo son los núcleos de pobladores, los cuales han contribuido de manera significativa a mejorar la calidad de vida de los habitantes, perfeccionando la cooperación internacional. Así se crea una nueva consideración de las relaciones internacionales, la cual se expresa bajo una dinámica de apoyo mutuo. Y se trata de resolver la siguiente pregunta: En un contexto de violencia y pobreza extrema, ¿el Laboratorio de Paz de la Unión Europea ha tenido algún impacto en la participación social de los habitantes de Barrancabermeja y San Pablo, a través del fomento del concepto de capital social

Bogotá, ciudad y calidad de la vida, análisis por componentes 1994-2004 Resultados finales de investigación.

En este texto se presentan las conclusiones de investigación del proyecto “Bogotá, ciudad y calidad de la vida, análisis por componentes 1994-2004”, adelantado en la Universidad de La Salle. Se apuesta por la construcción de un “indicador de calidad de la vida” resultado de los componentes de competitividad, responsabilidad social empresarial, calidad de la educación superior, empleo, demografía y esperanza de vida. Quedan por fuera muchas otras expresiones sociopolíticas, pero el objetivo de mostrar una forma diferente de calcular se puede satisfacer con estos seis componentes. Para ello se aceptan e incorporan los criterios holísticos y hologramáticos de la construcción social de territorio. Con ello se construyen versiones de acumulación fractal y se resuelven algunos otros temas teóricos. Los resultados muestran cómo cada componente por separado no explica el crecimiento de Bogotá, e indican el momento en que los ciclos de acumulación variaron para cada uno de ellos. En el caso de la calidad de la vida, que agrupa a todos los componentes, es posible observar, a través de la dispersión de datos, que aunque existe una tendencia a la mejora en la función-indicador, no hay una determinación por ninguno de ellos, lo cual controvierte otros resultados que asignan al crecimiento, el empleo o la productividad, entre otros, el resultado de lo que es Bogotá hoy. Con ello se puede entender que ninguno de los diferentes componentes mostrados cumple con la función de liderazgo social, o principal, y que es la propia inercia aditiva del crecimiento espontáneo la que determina el desarrollo.

Os determinantes da inflação em Moçambique : um estudo econométrico (1994-2004)

A inflação em Moçambique medida por variações no Índice de Preços ao Consumidor aumentou fortemente entre 1989 a 1995, mas a partir de 1996 teve a sua tendência crescente fortemente reduzida. Este trabalho analisa os fatores determinantes da inflação em Moçambique no período 1994-2004. Para este propósito, o trabalho inicia a sua investigação apresentando um resumo da política econômica (monetária, fiscal e cambial) adotada no país no respectivo período, a história da inflação moçambicana e a sua evolução ao longo do tempo, importantes fatores conjunturais para o entendimento do processo inflacionário a ser analisado. Seguidamente, é realizado um exercício econométrico que procura explicar o comportamento da inflação sob três formas distintas. A primeira forma estima a inflação utilizando um modelo univariado decomposto em componentes não observados: tendência, sazonalidade e irregularidade. A segunda forma estima a inflação utilizando um modelo autoregressivo de médiamóvel e a terceira e última forma utiliza um modelo multivariado para estimar a inflação no país. Os resultados obtidos neste estudo sugerem que a inflação em Moçambique foi determinada conjuntamente por fatores internos e externos. Entre os fatores internos determinantes da inflação destacam-se as dificuldades de controle monetário, depreciação do metical em relação ao rand e ao dólar norte-americano e oscilações na produção agrícola nacional provocadas por alterações nas condições climáticas do país. Também foi encontrada evidência da existência de fatores determinísticos sazonais e um nível de persistência na inflação moçambicana. Nos fatores externos destacam-se principalmente a exportação da inflação sul-africana para Moçambique, a evolução do rand no mercado cambial sul-africano e a evolução do preço do petróleo no mercado internacional.

Review of the implementation of the Programme of Action for the Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States in the Caribbean subregion, 1994-2004

This document contains a review of the implementation, in the Caribbean subregion, of the Programme of Action for the Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States (SIDS POA). It is divided into two Parts. Part 1 sets out an overall review of the implementation experience and identifies the activities pursued, the achievements recorded, as well as the constraints that were encountered in the process. This Part also addresses some of the more general issues arising from the implementation process as the subregion and the international community, in general, sought to come to terms with the SIDS POA, in search of a more comprehensive sustainable development ethos. Part 1 also documents the operational implications of these aspects over the decade that has elapsed since the adoption of the POA. The presentation of the review findings by reference to more or less precisely defined time periods represents an attempt to chronicle the subregional experience in a manner which permits an appreciation of the evolution of the implementation process.

Review of the implementation of the Cairo Programme of Action in the Caribbean (1994-2004): achievements and constraints

Includes bibliography