Fuel Cells: A Real Option for Unmanned Aerial Vehicles Propulsion

The possibility of implementing fuel cell technology in Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) propulsion systems is considered. Potential advantages of the Proton Exchange Membrane or Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEMFC) and Direct Methanol Fuel Cells (DMFC), their fuels (hydrogen and methanol), and their storage systems are revised from technical and environmental standpoints. Some operating commercial applications are described. Main constraints for these kinds of fuel cells are analyzed in order to elucidate the viability of future developments. Since the low power density is the main problem of fuel cells, hybridization with electric batteries, necessary in most cases, is also explored.

Electrochemical analysis of the performance of carbon supported Pd nanoparticles for direct formic acid fuel cells: from gold supported electrodes to catalyst-coated membranes

In this work carbon supported Pd nanoparticles were prepared and used as electrocatalysts for formic acid electrooxidation fuel cells. The influence of some relevant parameters such as the nominal Pt loading, the Nafion/total solids ratio as well as the Pd loading towards formic acid electrooxidation was evaluated using gold supported catalytic layer electrodes which were prepared using a similar methodology to that employed in the preparation of conventional catalyst coated membranes (CCM). The results obtained show that, for constant Pd loading, the nominal Pd loading and the Nafion percentage on the catalytic layer do not play an important role on the resulting electrocatalytic properties. The main parameter affecting the electrocatalytic activity of the electrodes seems to be the Pd loading, although the resulting activity is not directly proportional to the increased Pd loading. Thus, whereas the Pd loading is multiplied by a factor of 10, the activity is only twice which evidences an important decrease in the Pd utilization. In fact, the results obtained suggest the active layer is the outer one being clearly independent of the catalytic layer thickness. Finally, catalyst coated membranes with Pd catalyst loadings of 0.1, 0.5 and 1.2 mg cm-2 were also tested in a breathing direct formic acid fuel cell.

The Policy Framework for the Promotion of Hydrogen and Fuel Cells in Europe: a Critical Assessment. Bruges European Economic Policy (BEEP) Briefing 19/2008

This paper reviews the current EU policy framework in view of its impact on hydrogen and fuel cell development. It screens EU energy policies, EU regulatory policies and EU spending policies. Key questions addressed are as follows: To what extent is the current policy framework conducive to hydrogen and fuel cell development? What barriers and inconsistencies can be identified? How can policies potentially promote hydrogen and fuel cells in Europe, taking into account the complex evolution of such a disruptive technology? How should the EU policy framework be reformed in view of a strengthened and more coherent approach? The paper concludes that the current EU policy framework does not hinder hydrogen development. Yet it does not constitute a strong push factor either. EU energy policies have the strongest impact on hydrogen and fuel cell development even though their potential is still underexploited. Regulatory policies have a weak but positive impact on hydrogen. EU spending policies show some inconsistencies. However, the large scale market development of hydrogen and fuel cells will require a new policy approach which comprises technology specific support as well as a supportive policy framework with a special regional dimension.

Molten carbonate fuel cells

Over the past 12 months, developments in both porous and non-porous materials for the molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC) should lead to significantly increased stack lifetimes. Lithium-sodium carbonate is emerging as the material of choice for the electrolyte and has been tested in a 10 kW scale stack. Several new cathode materials, with lower dissolution rates in the electrolyte than state-of-the-art NiO, have been tested. However a significant finding is that the dissolution rate of NiO can also be reduced by an order of magnitude by preparing it as a functional nanomaterial. Although most developers continue to use nickel anodes, recent tests with ceramic oxides anodes open up the prospects of reduced carbon deposition and future cells running directly on dry methane. (c) 2004 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Microbial Fuel Cells: Methodology and Technology

Microbial fuel cell (MFC) research is a rapidly evolving field that lacks established terminology and methods for the analysis of system performance. This makes it difficult for researchers to compare devices on an equivalent basis. The construction and analysis of MFCs requires knowledge of different scientific and engineering fields, ranging from microbiology and electrochemistry to materials and environmental engineering. DescribingMFCsystems therefore involves an understanding of these different scientific and engineering principles. In this paper, we provide a review of the different materials and methods used to construct MFCs, techniques used to analyze system performance, and recommendations on what information to include in MFC studies and the most useful ways to present results.

Operation of polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells with dry feeds: Design and operating strategies

The operation of polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) with dry feeds has been examined with different fuel cell flow channel designs as functions of pressure, temperature and flow rate. Auto-humidified (or self-humidifying) PEMFC operation is improved at higher pressures and low gas velocities where axial dispersion enhances back-mixing of the product water with the dry feed. We demonstrate auto-humidified operation of the channel-less, self-draining fuel cell, based on a stirred tank reactor; data is presented showing auto-humidified operation from 25 to 115 degrees C at 1 and 3 atm. Design and operating requirements are derived for the auto-humidified operation of the channel-less, self-draining fuel cell. The auto-humidified self-draining fuel cell outperforms a fully humidified serpentine flow channel fuel cell at high current densities. The new design offers substantial benefits for simplicity of operation and control including: the ability to self-drain reducing flooding, the ability to uniformly disperse water removing current gradients and the ability to operate on dry feeds eliminating the need for humidifiers. Additionally, the design lends itself well to a modular design concept. (c) 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

The role of carbon in fuel cells

Carbon possesses unique electrical and structural properties that make it an ideal material for use in fuel cell construction. In alkaline, phosphoric acid and proton-exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs), carbon is used in fabricating the bipolar plate and the gas-diffusion layer. It can also act as a support for the active metal in the catalyst layer. Various forms of carbon - from graphite and carbon blacks to composite materials - have been chosen for fuel-cell components. The development of carbon nanotubes and the emergence of nanotechnology in recent years has therefore opened up new avenues of matenials development for the low-temperature fuel cells, particularly the hydrogen PEMFC and the direct methanol PEMFC. Carbon nanotubes and aerogels are also being investigated for use as catalyst support, and this could lead to the production of more stable, high activity catalysts, with low platinum loadings (< 0.1 Mg cm(-2)) and therefore low cost. Carbon can also be used as a fuel in high-temperature fuel cells based on solid oxide, alkaline or molten carbonate technology. In the direct carbon fuel cell (DCFC), the energy of combustion of carbon is converted to electrical power with a thermodynamic efficiency close to 100%. The DCFC could therefore help to extend the use of fossil fuels for power generation as society moves towards a more sustainable energy future. (c) 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Increasing the electrolyte capacity of alkaline Zn-air fuel cells by scavenging zincate with Ca(OH)2

The use of calcium hydroxide for scavenging zincate species is demonstrated to be a highly effective approach for increasing the electrolyte capacity and improving the performance of the zinc-air fuel cell system. A fundamental approach is established in this study to quantify the formation of calcium zincate as the product of scavenging and the amount of water compensation necessary for optimal performance. The good agreement between predicted and experimental results proves the validity of the proposed theoretical approach. By applying the results of theoretical predictions, both the electrolyte capacity and the cell longevity have been increased by more than 40%. It is also found that, using Ca(OH)2 to scavenge zincate species in concentrated KOH solutions, affects mostly the removal of zincate, rather than ZnO, from the electrolyte, whereas the presence of excess, free, mobile H2O plays a key role in dissolving ZnO and forming zincate. The results obtained in this study demonstrate that the proposed approach can widely and effectively be applied to all zinc-air cell systems during their discharge cycle.

Capillary siphons and their application in the fuel delivery system of direct methanol fuel cells

The objective of the work is to develop a fuel delivery system for potable direct methanol fuel cell. Currently, one of the most fundamental limitations of direct methanol fuel cells is that the fuel supplied to the anode of the DMFC must be a very dilute aqueous methanol solution (usually 0.5∼1.5 M). If a DMFC is filled with a dilute aqueous methanol solution, the fuel cell operation time per refuel would be very short, which would considerably diminish the advantage of a DMFC over a conventional battery. To overcome this difficulty, a complex fuel delivery system based on the modern micro system technology was proposed by the author. The proposed fuel delivery system would include micro-pumps, a methanol sensor, and a control unit. The fuel delivery system adds considerable costs to the fuel cell system and consume considerable amount of electricity from the fuel cell, which in turn significantly reduces the net power output of the fuel cell. As a result, the DMFC would have tremendous difficulty to compete with the conventional battery technology in terms of costs and power output. ^ This work presents a novel passive fuel delivery system for direct methanol fuel cells. In this particular system, a methanol fuel and an aqueous methanol solution are stored separately in two containers and a wick is disposed between the two containers in a siphon fashion, with the container of the aqueous methanol solution communicating with the anode of the DMFC. Methanol is siphoned from the methanol container to the aqueous solution container in-situ when the methanol in the aqueous methanol solution is consumed during the operation of the fuel cell. Through a proper selection of the wick and the containers, the methanol concentration near the anode of the DMFC could be maintained within a preferable range. ^

Computational modeling of intermediate temperature proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cells

A two-phase three-dimensional computational model of an intermediate temperature (120--190°C) proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell is presented. This represents the first attempt to model PEM fuel cells employing intermediate temperature membranes, in this case, phosphoric acid doped polybenzimidazole (PBI). To date, mathematical modeling of PEM fuel cells has been restricted to low temperature operation, especially to those employing Nafion ® membranes; while research on PBI as an intermediate temperature membrane has been solely at the experimental level. This work is an advancement in the state of the art of both these fields of research. With a growing trend toward higher temperature operation of PEM fuel cells, mathematical modeling of such systems is necessary to help hasten the development of the technology and highlight areas where research should be focused.^ This mathematical model accounted for all the major transport and polarization processes occurring inside the fuel cell, including the two phase phenomenon of gas dissolution in the polymer electrolyte. Results were presented for polarization performance, flux distributions, concentration variations in both the gaseous and aqueous phases, and temperature variations for various heat management strategies. The model predictions matched well with published experimental data, and were self-consistent.^ The major finding of this research was that, due to the transport limitations imposed by the use of phosphoric acid as a doping agent, namely low solubility and diffusivity of dissolved gases and anion adsorption onto catalyst sites, the catalyst utilization is very low (∼1--2%). Significant cost savings were predicted with the use of advanced catalyst deposition techniques that would greatly reduce the eventual thickness of the catalyst layer, and subsequently improve catalyst utilization. The model also predicted that an increase in power output in the order of 50% is expected if alternative doping agents to phosphoric acid can be found, which afford better transport properties of dissolved gases, reduced anion adsorption onto catalyst sites, and which maintain stability and conductive properties at elevated temperatures.^

Use of active power filter to reduce the effects of harmonics in solid oxide fuel cells

The Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC) is a class of fuel cells that is capable of generating very high levels of power at high temperatures. SOFCs are used for stationary power generation and as Combined Heat and Power (CHP) systems. In spite of all the beneficial features of the SOFC, the propagation of ripple currents, due to nonlinear loads, is a challenging problem, as it interferes with the physical operation of the fuel cell. The purpose of this thesis is to identify the cause of ripples and attempt to eliminate or reduce the ripple propagation through the use of Active Power Filters (APF). To this end, a systematic approach to modeling the fuel cell to account for its nonlinear behavior in the presence of current ripples is presented. A model of a small fuel cell power system which consists of a fuel cell, a DC-DC converter, a single-phase inverter and a nonlinear load is developed in MATLAB/Simulink environment. The extent of ripple propagation, due to variations in load magnitude and frequency, are identified using frequency spectrum analysis. In order to reduce the effects of ripple propagation, an APF is modeled to remove ripples from the DC fuel cell current. The emphasis of this thesis is based on the idea that small fuel cell systems cannot implement large passive filters to cancel the effects of ripple propagation and hence, the compact APF topology effectively protects the fuel cell from propagating ripples and improves its electrical performance.

SIGNIFICANCE OF HEAT DISSIPATION IN THE CATHODE CATALYST LAYER ON THE LIFETIME AND RELIABILITY OF POLYMER ELECTROLYTE FUEL CELLS

To study the dissipation of heat generated due to the formation of pinholes that cause local hotspots in the catalyst layer of the Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cell, a two-phase non-isothermal model has been developed by coupling Darcy’s law with heat transport. The domain under consideration is a section of the membrane electrode assembly with a half-channel and a half-rib. Five potential locations where a pinhole might form were analyzed: at the midplane of the channel, midway between the channel midplane and the channel wall, at the channel or rib wall, midway between the rib midplane and the channel wall, at the midplane of the rib. In the first part of this work, a preliminary thermal model was developed. The model was then refined to account for the two-phase effects. A sensitivity study was done to evaluate the effect of the following properties on the maximum temperature in the domain: Catalyst layer thermal conductivity, the Microporous layer thermal conductivity, the anisotropy factor of the Catalyst layer thermal conductivity, the Porous transport layer porosity, the liquid water distribution and the thickness of the membrane and porous layers. Accounting for the two-phase effects, a slight cooling effect was observed across all hotspot locations. The thermal properties of the catalyst layer were shown to have a limited impact on the maximum temperature in the catalyst layer of new fuel cells without pinhole. However, as hotspots start to appear, thermal properties play a more significant role in mitigating the thermal runaway.

Direct spun aligned carbon nanotube web-reinforced proton exchange membranes for fuel cells

A new method combining electrospinning of SPEEK and direct spinning of CNT forests has been used to prepare sulfonated poly(ether ether ketone) (SPEEK)/directly spinnable carbon nanotube (dsCNT) composite proton exchange membranes. The SPEEK/dsCNT membrane is more robust than SPEEK alone, and in a fuel cell significantly outperforms both SPEEK and the commercial Nafion 212 membranes.

Développement et caractérisation de nouveaux nanocomposites polymères électriquement conductueurs pour plaques bipolaires de piles à combustible à membrane échangeuse de protons, PEMFC

Face à la diminution des ressources énergétiques et à l’augmentation de la pollution des énergies fossiles, de très nombreuses recherches sont actuellement menées pour produire de l’énergie propre et durable et pour réduire l’utilisation des sources d’énergies fossiles caractérisées par leur production intrinsèque des gaz à effet de serre. La pile à combustible à membrane échangeuse de protons (PEMFC) est une technologie qui prend de plus en plus d’ampleur pour produire l’énergie qui s’inscrit dans un contexte de développement durable. La PEMFC est un dispositif électrochimique qui fonctionne selon le principe inverse de l’électrolyse de l’eau. Elle convertit l’énergie de la réaction chimique entre l’hydrogène et l’oxygène (ou l’air) en puissance électrique, chaleur et eau; son seul rejet dans l’atmosphère est de la vapeur d’eau. Une pile de type PEMFC est constituée d’un empilement Électrode-Membrane-Électrode (EME) où la membrane consiste en un électrolyte polymère solide séparant les deux électrodes (l’anode et la cathode). Cet ensemble est intégré entre deux plaques bipolaires (BP) qui permettent de collecter le courant électrique et de distribuer les gaz grâce à des chemins de circulation gravés sur chacune de ses deux faces. La plupart des recherches focalisent sur la PEMFC afin d’améliorer ses performances électriques et sa durabilité et aussi de réduire son coût de production. Ces recherches portent sur le développement et la caractérisation des divers éléments de ce type de pile; y compris les éléments les plus coûteux et les plus massifs, tels que les plaques bipolaires. La conception de ces plaques doit tenir compte de plusieurs paramètres : elles doivent posséder une bonne perméabilité aux gaz et doivent combiner les propriétés de résistance mécanique, de stabilité chimique et thermique ainsi qu’une conductivité électrique élevée. Elles doivent aussi permettre d’évacuer adéquatement la chaleur générée dans le cœur de la cellule. Les plaques bipolaires métalliques sont pénalisées par leur faible résistance à la corrosion et celles en graphite sont fragiles et leur coût de fabrication est élevé (dû aux phases d’usinage des canaux de cheminement des gaz). C’est pourquoi de nombreuses recherches sont orientées vers le développement d’un nouveau concept de plaques bipolaires. La voie la plus prometteuse est de remplacer les matériaux métalliques et le graphite par des composites à matrice polymère. Les plaques bipolaires composites apparaissent attrayantes en raison de leur facilité de mise en œuvre et leur faible coût de production mais nécessitent une amélioration de leurs propriétés électriques et mécaniques, d’où l’objectif principal de cette thèse dans laquelle on propose: i) un matériau nanocomposite développé par extrusion bi-vis qui est à base de polymères chargés d’additifs solides conducteurs, incluant des nanotubes de carbone. ii) fabriquer un prototype de plaque bipolaire à partir de ces matériaux en utilisant le procédé de compression à chaud avec un refroidissement contrôlé. Dans ce projet, deux polymères thermoplastiques ont été utilisés, le polyfluorure de vinylidène (PVDF) et le polyéthylène téréphtalate (PET). Les charges électriquement conductrices sélectionnées sont: le noir de carbone, le graphite et les nanotubes de carbones. La combinaison de ces charges conductrices a été aussi étudiée visant à obtenir des formulations optimisées. La conductivité électrique à travers l’épaisseur des échantillons développés ainsi que leurs propriétés mécaniques ont été soigneusement caractérisées. Les résultats ont montré que non seulement la combinaison entre les charges conductrices influence les propriétés électriques et mécaniques des prototypes développés, mais aussi la distribution de ces charges (qui de son côté dépend de leur nature, leur taille et leurs propriétés de surface), avait aidé à améliorer les propriétés visées. Il a été observé que le traitement de surface des nanotubes de carbone avait aidé à l’amélioration de la conductivité électrique et la résistance mécanique des prototypes. Le taux de cristallinité généré durant le procédé de moulage par compression des prototypes de plaques bipolaires ainsi que la cinétique de cristallisation jouent un rôle important pour l’optimisation des propriétés électriques et mécaniques visées.

Integrated micro fuel cells with on-board hydride reactors and autonomous control schemes

Miniaturization of power generators to the MEMS scale, based on the hydrogen-air fuel cell, is the object of this research. The micro fuel cell approach has been adopted for advantages of both high power and energy densities. On-board hydrogen production/storage and an efficient control scheme that facilitates integration with a fuel cell membrane electrode assembly (MEA) are key elements for micro energy conversion. Millimeter-scale reactors (ca. 10 µL) have been developed, for hydrogen production through hydrolysis of CaH2 and LiAlH4, to yield volumetric energy densities of the order of 200 Whr/L. Passive microfluidic control schemes have been implemented in order to facilitate delivery, self-regulation, and at the same time eliminate bulky auxiliaries that run on parasitic power. One technique uses surface tension to pump water in a microchannel for hydrolysis and is self-regulated, based on load, by back pressure from accumulated hydrogen acting on a gas-liquid microvalve. This control scheme improves uniformity of power delivery during long periods of lower power demand, with fast switching to mass transport regime on the order of seconds, thus providing peak power density of up to 391.85 W/L. Another method takes advantage of water recovery by backward transport through the MEA, of water vapor that is generated at the cathode half-cell reaction. This regulation-free scheme increases available reactor volume to yield energy density of 313 Whr/L, and provides peak power density of 104 W/L. Prototype devices have been tested for a range of duty periods from 2-24 hours, with multiple switching of power demand in order to establish operation across multiple regimes. Issues identified as critical to the realization of the integrated power MEMS include effects of water transport and byproduct hydrate swelling on hydrogen production in the micro reactor, and ambient relative humidity on fuel cell performance.