Transcytosis of cholera toxin subunits across model human intestinal epithelia.

Cholera toxin (CT) elicits a massive secretory response from intestinal epithelia by binding apical receptors (ganglioside GM1) and ultimately activating basolateral effectors (adenylate cyclase). The mechanism of signal transduction from apical to basolateral membrane, however, remains undefined. We have previously shown that CT action on the polarized human intestinal epithelial cell line T84 requires endocytosis and processing in multiple intracellular compartments. Our aim in the present study was to test the hypothesis that CT may actually move to its site of action on the basolateral membrane by vesicular traffic. After binding apical receptors, CT entered basolaterally directed transcytotic vesicles. Both CT B subunits and to a lesser extent CT A subunits were delivered intact to the serosal surface of the basolateral membrane. The toxin did not traverse the monolayer by diffusion through intercellular junctions. Transcytosis of CT B subunits displayed nearly identical time course and temperature dependency with that of CT-induced Cl- secretion--suggesting the two may be related. These data identify a mechanism that may explain the link between the toxin's apical receptor and basolateral effector.

Variação sazonal do metabolismo energético no primeiro ciclo anual de lagartos teiú Tupinambis merianae: correlatos com atividades diárias, adiposidade e proteção antioxidante

Lagartos teiú eclodem no verão e enfrentam o desafio de crescer e armazenar substratos em um curto período de tempo, antes do início do período de jejum e depressão metabólica (≈80%) a temperaturas amenas durante o inverno (≈17 °C). No despertar, o aumento do metabolismo e a reperfusão de órgãos favoreceriam a ocorrência de estresse oxidativo. Na primeira parte do presente estudo investigou−se os ajustes que compatibilizam as demandas em teiús neonatos, especialmente na pré-hibernação, por meio da gravação do comportamento em vídeo e da análise da massa dos corpos gordurosos abdominais e do nível plasmático de corticosterona (CORT) durante o primeiro ciclo anual. No início do outono a massa corpórea dos teiús foi 27 g e o comprimento rostro−cloacal 9,3 cm e aumentaram 40% e 20%, respectivamente, ao longo do outono, enquanto que as taxas diminuíram progressivamente até atingirem o valor zero no início do inverno. Na primavera, a massa corpórea dos teiús aumentou 80% em relação ao despertar e dobrou em relação ao final do verão; o comprimento acumulou um aumento de 27% em relação ao final do verão. A massa relativa dos corpos gordurosos foi 3,7% no início do outono e diminuiu nos meses subsequentes; no despertar, este estoque acumulou uma perda de 63% da sua massa. No início do outono 74% dos teiús estavam ativos por 4,7 h e permaneceram 2 h assoalhando diariamente; ao longo do outono o número de animais ativos e o tempo em atividade diminuíram até que todos se tornaram inativos. Na primavera 83% dos teiús estavam ativos por 7 h e permaneceram 4 h assoalhando. Um padrão sazonal similar foi observado na atividade locomotora e na alimentação. No outono, a alimentação cessou antes da atividade diária e os teiús tornaram−se afágicos algumas semanas antes da entrada em hibernação. Os maiores níveis de CORT foram observados no início do outono, reduzindo progressivamente até valores 75 e 86% menores na dormência e despertar, respectivamente; na primavera os níveis de CORT foram 32% menores em comparação com o início do outono. Este padrão sugere um papel da CORT nos ajustes que promovem a ingestão de alimento e a deposição de substratos energéticos no outono. A redução da atividade geral no final do outono contribuiria para a economia energética e manutenção da massa corpórea, apesar da redução da ingestão de alimento. O curso temporal das alterações fisiológicas e comportamentais em neonatos reforça a ideia de que a dormência sazonal nos teiús é o resultado da expressão de um ritmo endógeno. Na segunda parte do estudo foi investigada a hipótese de que ocorreriam ajustes das defesas antioxidantes durante a hibernação, em antecipação ao despertar. Foram analisados marcadores de estresse oxidativo e antioxidantes em vários órgãos de teiús em diferentes fases do primeiro ciclo anual. A CS, um indicador do potencial oxidante, não variou no fígado e foi menor no rim e no pulmão na hibernação. As enzimas antioxidantes revelaram (1) um efeito abrangente de redução das taxas na hibernação e despertar; por exemplo, GR e CAT foram menores em todos órgãos analisados e a GST tendeu a diminuir no fígado e no rim, embora constante no coração e no pulmão. A G6PDH no fígado e no rim não variou. (2) No fígado, a GST, a Se−GPX e o teor de TBARS foram maiores na atividade de outono em relação à primavera e a Se−GPX permaneceu elevada na hibernação. (3) No fígado, a SOD foi maior na hibernação e despertar em relação ao outono e a Mn−SOD seguiu este padrão. Em contraste, no rim, coração e pulmão a SOD foi menor na hibernação e as taxas se recuperaram no coração e pulmão no despertar. A Mn−SOD seguiu este padrão no pulmão. A concentração e o estado redox da glutationa não variaram no fígado, rim e coração; no pulmão o teor de Eq−GSH e GSH foi menor na hibernação, com tendência à recuperação no despertar. O teor de PC no rim foi maior na hibernação e diminuiu no despertar. No fígado, as alterações no jejum se assemelham às sazonais, como sugerem a inibição da CAT e GR e aumento da Se−GPX. Os efeitos do jejum na primavera no rim diferem dos efeitos sazonais, como sugerem a redução do teor de Eq−GSH e GSH e o aumento da razão GSSG:GSH, a redução da G6PDH e o aumento de PC. No conjunto, houve um efeito predominante de redução das taxas enzimáticas na hibernação e no despertar, exceto pelas taxas aumentadas da SOD e Se−GPX no fígado e pela recuperação da SOD no coração e da GR, SOD e Mn−SOD no pulmão no despertar. As elevadas taxas das enzimas antioxidantes no teiú em comparação a outros ectotermos e a ausência de evidências de estresse oxidativo no despertar sugerem que a atividade enzimática remanescente é suficiente para prevenir danos aos tecidos face às flutuações do metabolismo

The nuclear pore complex and its transporters : from virus-host interactors to subverting the innate antiviral immunity

Les virus ont besoin d’interagir avec des facteurs cellulaires pour se répliquer et se propager dans les cellules d’hôtes. Une étude de l'interactome des protéines du virus d'hépatite C (VHC) par Germain et al. (2014) a permis d'élucider de nouvelles interactions virus-hôte. L'étude a également démontré que la majorité des facteurs de l'hôte n'avaient pas d'effet sur la réplication du virus. Ces travaux suggèrent que la majorité des protéines ont un rôle dans d'autres processus cellulaires tel que la réponse innée antivirale et ciblées pas le virus dans des mécanismes d'évasion immune. Pour tester cette hypothèse, 132 interactant virus-hôtes ont été sélectionnés et évalués par silençage génique dans un criblage d'ARNi sur la production interferon-beta (IFNB1). Nous avons ainsi observé que les réductions de l'expression de 53 interactants virus-hôte modulent la réponse antivirale innée. Une étude dans les termes de gène d'ontologie (GO) démontre un enrichissement de ces protéines au transport nucléocytoplasmique et au complexe du pore nucléaire. De plus, les gènes associés avec ces termes (CSE1L, KPNB1, RAN, TNPO1 et XPO1) ont été caractérisé comme des interactant de la protéine NS3/4A par Germain et al. (2014), et comme des régulateurs positives de la réponse innée antivirale. Comme le VHC se réplique dans le cytoplasme, nous proposons que ces interactions à des protéines associées avec le noyau confèrent un avantage de réplication et bénéficient au virus en interférant avec des processus cellulaire tel que la réponse innée. Cette réponse innée antivirale requiert la translocation nucléaire des facteurs transcriptionnelles IRF3 et NF-κB p65 pour la production des IFNs de type I. Un essai de microscopie a été développé afin d'évaluer l’effet du silençage de 60 gènes exprimant des protéines associés au complexe du pore nucléaire et au transport nucléocytoplasmique sur la translocation d’IRF3 et NF-κB p65 par un criblage ARNi lors d’une cinétique d'infection virale. En conclusion, l’étude démontre qu’il y a plusieurs protéines qui sont impliqués dans le transport de ces facteurs transcriptionnelles pendant une infection virale et peut affecter la production IFNB1 à différents niveaux de la réponse d'immunité antivirale. L'étude aussi suggère que l'effet de ces facteurs de transport sur la réponse innée est peut être un mécanisme d'évasion par des virus comme VHC.

Establishment of a confluent monolayer model with human primary trophoblast cells: novel insights into placental glucose transport

STUDY HYPOTHESIS Using optimized conditions, primary trophoblast cells isolated from human term placenta can develop a confluent monolayer in vitro, which morphologically and functionally resembles the microvilli structure found in vivo. STUDY FINDING We report the successful establishment of a confluent human primary trophoblast monolayer using pre-coated polycarbonate inserts, where the integrity and functionality was validated by cell morphology, biophysical features, cellular marker expression and secretion, and asymmetric glucose transport. WHAT IS KNOWN ALREADY Human trophoblast cells form the initial barrier between maternal and fetal blood to regulate materno-fetal exchange processes. Although the method for isolating pure human cytotrophoblast cells was developed almost 30 years ago, a functional in vitro model with primary trophoblasts forming a confluent monolayer is still lacking. STUDY DESIGN, SAMPLES/MATERIALS, METHODS Human term cytotrophoblasts were isolated by enzymatic digestion and density gradient separation. The purity of the primary cells was evaluated by flow cytometry using the trophoblast-specific marker cytokeratin 7, and vimentin as an indicator for potentially contaminating cells. We screened different coating matrices for high cell viability to optimize the growth conditions for primary trophoblasts on polycarbonate inserts. During culture, cell confluency and polarity were monitored daily by determining transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER) and permeability properties of florescent dyes. The time course of syncytia-related gene expression and hCG secretion during syncytialization were assessed by quantitative RT-PCR and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, respectively. The morphology of cultured trophoblasts after 5 days was determined by light microscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Membrane makers were visualized using confocal microscopy. Additionally, glucose transport studies were performed on the polarized trophoblasts in the same system. MAIN RESULTS AND THE ROLE OF CHANCE During 5-day culture, the highly pure trophoblasts were cultured on inserts coated with reconstituted basement membrane matrix . They exhibited a confluent polarized monolayer, with a modest TEER and a size-dependent apparent permeability coefficient (Papp) to fluorescently labeled compounds (MW ∼400-70 000 Da). The syncytialization progress was characterized by gradually increasing mRNA levels of fusogen genes and elevating hCG secretion. SEM analyses confirmed a confluent trophoblast layer with numerous microvilli, and TEM revealed a monolayer with tight junctions. Immunocytochemistry on the confluent trophoblasts showed positivity for the cell-cell adhesion molecule E-cadherin, the tight junction protein 1 (ZO-1) and the membrane proteins ATP-binding cassette transporter A1 (ABCA1) and glucose transporter 1 (GLUT1). Applying this model to study the bidirectional transport of a non-metabolizable glucose derivative indicated a carrier-mediated placental glucose transport mechanism with asymmetric kinetics. LIMITATIONS, REASONS FOR CAUTION The current study is only focused on primary trophoblast cells isolated from healthy placentas delivered at term. It remains to be evaluated whether this system can be extended to pathological trophoblasts isolated from diverse gestational diseases. WIDER IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGS These findings confirmed the physiological properties of the newly developed human trophoblast barrier, which can be applied to study the exchange of endobiotics and xenobiotics between the maternal and fetal compartment, as well as intracellular metabolism, paracellular contributions and regulatory mechanisms influencing the vectorial transport of molecules. LARGE-SCALE DATA Not applicable. STUDY FUNDING AND COMPETING INTERESTS This study was supported by the Swiss National Center of Competence in Research, NCCR TransCure, University of Bern, Switzerland, and the Swiss National Science Foundation (grant no. 310030_149958, C.A.). All authors declare that their participation in the study did not involve factual or potential conflicts of interests.

Dopamine and semantic activation: An investigation of masked direct and indirect priming

To investigate the effects of dopamine on the dynamics of semantic activation, 39 healthy volunteers were randomly assigned to ingest either a placebo (n = 24) or a levodopa (it = 16) capsule. Participants then performed a lexical decision task that implemented a masked priming paradigm. Direct and indirect semantic priming was measured across stimulus onset asynchronies (SOAs) of 250, 500 and 1200 ms. The results revealed significant direct and indirect semantic priming effects for the placebo group at SOAs of 250 ms and 500 ms, but no significant direct or indirect priming effects at the 1200 ms SOA. In contrast, the levodopa group showed significant direct and indirect semantic priming effects at the 250 ms SOA, while no significant direct or indirect priming effects were evident at the SOAs of 500 ins or 1200 ms. These results suggest that dopamine has a role in modulating both automatic and attentional aspects of semantic activation according to a specific time course. The implications of these results for current theories of dopaminergic modulation of semantic activation are discussed.

Maintaining and updating semantic context in schizophrenia: an investigation of the effects of multiple remote primes

Conflicting findings regarding the ability of people with schizophrenia to maintain and update semantic contexts have been due, arguably, to vagaries within the experimental design employed (e.g. whether strongly or remotely associated prime-target pairs have been used, what delay between the prime and the target was employed, and what proportion of related prime-target pairs appeared) or to characteristics of the participant cohort (e.g. medication status, chronicity of illness). The aim of the present study was to examine how people with schizophrenia maintain and update contextual information over an extended temporal window by using multiple primes that were either remotely associated or unrelated to the target. Fourteen participants with schizophrenia and 12 healthy matched controls were compared across two stimulus onset asynchronies (SOAs) (short and long) and two relatedness proportions (RP) (high and low) in a crossed design. Analysis of variance statistics revealed significant two- and three-way interactions between Group and SOA, Group and Condition, SOA and RP, and Group, SOA and RP. The participants with schizophrenia showed evidence of enhanced remote priming at the short SOA and low RP, combined with a reduction in the time course over which context could be maintained. There was some sensitivity to biasing contextual information at the short SOA, although the mechanism over which context served to update information appeared to be different from that in the controls. The participants with schizophrenia showed marked performance decrements at the long SOA (both low and high RP). Indices of remote priming at the short (but not the long) SOA correlated with both clinical ratings of thought disorder and with increasing length of illness. The results support and extend the hypothesis that schizophrenia is associated with concurrent increases in tonic dopamine activity and decreases in phasic dopamine activity. (C) 2004 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

Spatially localized distortions of event time

A fundamental question about the perception of time is whether the neural mechanisms underlying temporal judgements are universal and centralized in the brain or modality specific and distributed []. Time perception has traditionally been thought to be entirely dissociated from spatial vision. Here we show that the apparent duration of a dynamic stimulus can be manipulated in a local region of visual space by adapting to oscillatory motion or flicker. This implicates spatially localized temporal mechanisms in duration perception. We do not see concomitant changes in the time of onset or offset of the test patterns, demonstrating a direct local effect on duration perception rather than an indirect effect on the time course of neural processing. The effects of adaptation on duration perception can also be dissociated from motion or flicker perception per se. Although 20 Hz adaptation reduces both the apparent temporal frequency and duration of a 10 Hz test stimulus, 5 Hz adaptation increases apparent temporal frequency but has little effect on duration perception. We conclude that there is a peripheral, spatially localized, essentially visual component involved in sensing the duration of visual events.

Isoform specific changes in calcium transporters in colon and breast cancer cell lines

Calcium transporters play vital roles in the transport of calcium ions across cells of the mammary gland and the intestine. One such transporter is the plasma membrane Ca2+-ATPase (PMCA), of which there are 4 different genes (PMCA1-4). In these studies we investigated the hypothesis that the expression of PMCA is altered in HT-29 colon cancer cells during sodium butyrate and post-confluence mediated differentiation. We also investigated if PMCA expression is altered in breast cancer cell lines in an isofrom specific manner. Our results indicate isoform specific changes in PMCA mRNA and protein levels in HT-29 cells during differentiation, using real time RT-PCR and western blotting, respectively. We also observed pronounced alterations in the mRNA levels of the PMCA isoform linked to lactation (PMCA2) in a bank of breast cancer cell lines compared to normal cell lines. Changes in other isoforms were less pronounced. To further study the role of specific calcium transporters we have optimised conditions for the reverse transfection of MCF-7 breast cancer cells using NeoFX (Ambion). Using real time RT-PCR we have confirmed gene knockdown for specific isoforms and have studied the time course of knockdown over 96 hours. We see approximately 68 % inhibition at 24 hours increasing to 84 % 96 hours post-reverse transfection. Our studies suggest that the expression of specific calcium transporter isoforms can be significantly altered in cancer cell lines and that isoform specific inhibition of calcium transporters is possible using reverse transfection of siRNA

Biochemical correlates of cognition: exploring the relationships between blood, brain and behaviour

This multi-modal investigation aimed to refine analytic tools including proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H-MRS) and fatty acid gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis, for use with adult and paediatric populations, to investigate potential biochemical underpinnings of cognition (Chapter 1). Essential fatty acids (EFAs) are vital for the normal development and function of neural cells. There is increasing evidence of behavioural impairments arising from dietary deprivation of EFAs and their long-chain fatty acid metabolites (Chapter 2). Paediatric liver disease was used as a deficiency model to examine the relationships between EFA status and cognitive outcomes. Age-appropriate Wechsler assessments measured Full-scale IQ (FSIQ) and Information Processing Speed (IPS) in clinical and healthy cohorts; GC-MS quantified surrogate markers of EFA status in erythrocyte membranes; and 1H-MRS quantified neurometabolite markers of neuronal viability and function in cortical tissue (Chapter 3). Post-transplant children with early-onset liver disease demonstrated specific deficits in IPS compared to age-matched acute liver failure transplant patients and sibling controls, suggesting that the time-course of the illness is a key factor (Chapter 4). No signs of EFA deficiency were observed in the clinical cohort, suggesting that EFA metabolism was not significantly impacted by liver disease. A strong, negative correlation was observed between omega-6 fatty acids and FSIQ, independent of disease diagnosis (Chapter 5). In a study of healthy adults, effect sizes for the relationship between 1H-MRS- detectable neurometabolites and cognition fell within the range of previous work, but were not statistically significant. Based on these findings, recommendations are made emphasising the need for hypothesis-driven enquiry and greater subtlety of data analysis (Chapter 6). Consistency of metabolite values between paediatric clinical cohorts and controls indicate normal neurodevelopment, but the lack of normative, age-matched data makes it difficult to assess the true strength of liver disease-associated metabolite changes (Chapter 7). Converging methods offer a challenging but promising and novel approach to exploring brain-behaviour relationships from micro- to macroscopic levels of analysis (Chapter 8).

Time-dependent evolution of tissue markers by MALDI-MS imaging

We have used MALDI-MS imaging (MALDI-MSI) to monitor the time dependent appearance and loss of signals when tissue slices are brought rapidly to room temperature for short to medium periods of time. Sections from mouse brain were cut in a cryostat microtome, placed on a MALDI target and allowed to warm to room temperature for 30 s to 3 h. Sections were then refrozen, fixed by ethanol treatment and analysed by MALDI-MSI. The intensity of a range of markers were seen to vary across the time course, both increasing and decreasing, with the intensity of some markers changing significantly within 30 s and markers also showed tissue location specific evolution. The markers resulting from this autolysis were compared directly to those that evolved in a comparable 16 h on-tissue trypsin digest, and the markers that evolved in the two studies were seen to be substantially different. These changes offer an important additional level of location-dependent information for mapping changes and seeking disease-dependent biomarkers in the tissue. They also indicate that considerable care is required to allow comparison of biomarkers between MALDI-MSI experiments and also has implications for the standard practice of thaw-mounting multiple tissue sections onto MALDI-MS targets.

A systematic exploration of perceptual and semantic differences in category-specific object-processing using magnetoencephalography

In a series of experiments, we tested category-specific activation in normal parti¬cipants using magnetoencephalography (MEG). Our experiments explored the temporal processing of objects, as MEG characterises neural activity on the order of milliseconds. Our experiments explored object-processing, including assessing the time-course of ob¬ject naming, early differences in processing living compared with nonliving objects and processing objects at the basic compared with the domain level, and late differences in processing living compared with nonliving objects and processing objects at the basic compared with the domain level. In addition to studies using normal participants, we also utilised MEG to explore category-specific processing in a patient with a deficit for living objects. Our findings support the cascade model of object naming (Humphreys et al., 1988). In addition, our findings using normal participants demonstrate early, category-specific perceptual differences. These findings are corroborated by our patient study. In our assessment of the time-course of category-specific effects as well as a separate analysis designed to measure semantic differences between living and nonliving objects, we found support for the sensory/motor model of object naming (Martin, 1998), in addition to support for the cascade model of object naming. Thus, object processing in normal participants appears to be served by a distributed network in the brain, and there are both perceptual and semantic differences between living and nonliving objects. A separate study assessing the influence of the level at which you are asked to identify an object on processing in the brain found evidence supporting the convergence zone hypothesis (Damasio, 1989). Taken together, these findings indicate the utility of MEG in exploring the time-course of object processing, isolating early perceptual and later semantic effects within the brain.

Seawater carbonate chemistry, mass, length and gene expression of Sepia officinalis during experiments, 2011

The specific transporters involved in maintenance of blood pH homeostasis in cephalopod molluscs have not been identified to date. Using in situ hybridization and immuno histochemical methods, we demonstrate that Na+/K+-ATPase (soNKA), a V-type H+-ATPase (soV-HA), and Na+/HCO3- cotransporter (soNBC) are co-localized in NKA-rich cells in the gills of Sepia officinalis. mRNA expression patterns of these transporters and selected metabolic genes were examined in response to moderately elevated seawater pCO2 (0.16 and 0.35 kPa) over a time-course of six weeks in different ontogenetic stages. The applied CO2 concentrations are relevant for ocean acidification scenarios projected for the coming decades. We determined strong expression changes in late stage embryos and hatchlings, with one to three log2-fold reductions in soNKA, soNBCe, socCAII and COX. In contrast, no hypercapnia induced changes in mRNA expression were observed in juveniles during both short- and long-term exposure. However a transiently increased demand of ion regulatory demand was evident during the initial acclimation reaction to elevated seawater pCO2. Gill Na+/K+-ATPase activity and protein concentration were increased by approximately 15% in during short (2-11 day), but not long term (42 day) exposure. Our findings support the hypothesis that the energy budget of adult cephalopods is not significantly compromised during long-term exposure to moderate environmental hypercapnia. However, the down regulation of ion-regulatory and metabolic genes in late stage embryos, taken together with a significant reduction in somatic growth, indicates that cephalopod early life stages are challenged by elevated seawater pCO2.

Mécanismes psychophysiques et neuronaux de la compensation dynamique de multiples champs de force : facilitation et anticipation liée à des indices de couleur

Dans cette thèse, nous abordons le contrôle moteur du mouvement du coude à travers deux approches expérimentales : une première étude psychophysique a été effectuée chez les sujets humains, et une seconde implique des enregistrements neurophysiologiques chez le singe. Nous avons recensé plusieurs aspects non résolus jusqu’à présent dans l’apprentissage moteur, particulièrement concernant l’interférence survenant lors de l’adaptation à deux ou plusieurs champs de force anti-corrélés. Nous avons conçu un paradigme où des stimuli de couleur aident les sujets à prédire la nature du champ de force externe actuel avant qu’ils ne l’expérimentent physiquement durant des mouvements d’atteinte. Ces connaissances contextuelles faciliteraient l’adaptation à des champs de forces en diminuant l’interférence. Selon le modèle computationnel de l’apprentissage moteur MOSAIC (MOdular Selection And Identification model for Control), les stimuli de couleur aident les sujets à former « un modèle interne » de chaque champ de forces, à s’en rappeler et à faire la transition entre deux champs de force différents, sans interférence. Dans l’expérience psychophysique, quatre groupes de sujets humains ont exécuté des mouvements de flexion/extension du coude contre deux champs de forces. Chaque force visqueuse était associée à une couleur de l’écran de l’ordinateur et les deux forces étaient anti-corrélées : une force résistante (Vr) a été associée à la couleur rouge de l’écran et l’autre, assistante (Va), à la couleur verte de l’écran. Les deux premiers groupes de sujets étaient des groupes témoins : la couleur de l’écran changeait à chaque bloc de 4 essais, tandis que le champ de force ne changeait pas. Les sujets du groupe témoin Va ne rencontraient que la force assistante Va et les sujets du groupe témoin Vr performaient leurs mouvements uniquement contre une force résistante Vr. Ainsi, dans ces deux groupes témoins, les stimuli de couleur n’étaient pas pertinents pour adapter le mouvement et les sujets ne s’adaptaient qu’à une seule force (Va ou Vr). Dans les deux groupes expérimentaux, cependant, les sujets expérimentaient deux champs de forces différents dans les différents blocs d’essais (4 par bloc), associés à ces couleurs. Dans le premier groupe expérimental (groupe « indice certain », IC), la relation entre le champ de force et le stimulus (couleur de l’écran) était constante. La couleur rouge signalait toujours la force Vr tandis que la force Va était signalée par la couleur verte. L’adaptation aux deux forces anti-corrélées pour le groupe IC s’est avérée significative au cours des 10 jours d’entraînement et leurs mouvements étaient presque aussi bien ajustés que ceux des deux groupes témoins qui n’avaient expérimenté qu’une seule des deux forces. De plus, les sujets du groupe IC ont rapidement démontré des changements adaptatifs prédictifs dans leurs sorties motrices à chaque changement de couleur de l’écran, et ceci même durant leur première journée d’entraînement. Ceci démontre qu’ils pouvaient utiliser les stimuli de couleur afin de se rappeler de la commande motrice adéquate. Dans le deuxième groupe expérimental, la couleur de l’écran changeait régulièrement de vert à rouge à chaque transition de blocs d’essais, mais le changement des champs de forces était randomisé par rapport aux changements de couleur (groupe « indice-incertain », II). Ces sujets ont pris plus de temps à s’adapter aux champs de forces que les 3 autres groupes et ne pouvaient pas utiliser les stimuli de couleurs, qui n’étaient pas fiables puisque non systématiquement reliés aux champs de forces, pour faire des changements prédictifs dans leurs sorties motrices. Toutefois, tous les sujets de ce groupe ont développé une stratégie ingénieuse leur permettant d’émettre une réponse motrice « par défaut » afin de palper ou de sentir le type de la force qu’ils allaient rencontrer dans le premier essai de chaque bloc, à chaque changement de couleur. En effet, ils utilisaient la rétroaction proprioceptive liée à la nature du champ de force afin de prédire la sortie motrice appropriée pour les essais qui suivent, jusqu’au prochain changement de couleur d’écran qui signifiait la possibilité de changement de force. Cette stratégie était efficace puisque la force demeurait la même dans chaque bloc, pendant lequel la couleur de l’écran restait inchangée. Cette étude a démontré que les sujets du groupe II étaient capables d’utiliser les stimuli de couleur pour extraire des informations implicites et explicites nécessaires à la réalisation des mouvements, et qu’ils pouvaient utiliser ces informations pour diminuer l’interférence lors de l’adaptation aux forces anti-corrélées. Les résultats de cette première étude nous ont encouragés à étudier les mécanismes permettant aux sujets de se rappeler d’habiletés motrices multiples jumelées à des stimuli contextuels de couleur. Dans le cadre de notre deuxième étude, nos expériences ont été effectuées au niveau neuronal chez le singe. Notre but était alors d’élucider à quel point les neurones du cortex moteur primaire (M1) peuvent contribuer à la compensation d’un large éventail de différentes forces externes durant un mouvement de flexion/extension du coude. Par cette étude, nous avons testé l’hypothèse liée au modèle MOSAIC, selon laquelle il existe plusieurs modules contrôleurs dans le cervelet qui peuvent prédire chaque contexte et produire un signal de sortie motrice approprié pour un nombre restreint de conditions. Selon ce modèle, les neurones de M1 recevraient des entrées de la part de plusieurs contrôleurs cérébelleux spécialisés et montreraient ensuite une modulation appropriée de la réponse pour une large variété de conditions. Nous avons entraîné deux singes à adapter leurs mouvements de flexion/extension du coude dans le cadre de 5 champs de force différents : un champ nul ne présentant aucune perturbation, deux forces visqueuses anti-corrélées (assistante et résistante) qui dépendaient de la vitesse du mouvement et qui ressemblaient à celles utilisées dans notre étude psychophysique chez l’homme, une force élastique résistante qui dépendait de la position de l’articulation du coude et, finalement, un champ viscoélastique comportant une sommation linéaire de la force élastique et de la force visqueuse. Chaque champ de force était couplé à une couleur d’écran de l’ordinateur, donc nous avions un total de 5 couleurs différentes associées chacune à un champ de force (relation fixe). Les singes étaient bien adaptés aux 5 conditions de champs de forces et utilisaient les stimuli contextuels de couleur pour se rappeler de la sortie motrice appropriée au contexte de forces associé à chaque couleur, prédisant ainsi leur sortie motrice avant de sentir les effets du champ de force. Les enregistrements d’EMG ont permis d’éliminer la possibilité de co-contractions sous-tendant ces adaptations, étant donné que le patron des EMG était approprié pour compenser chaque condition de champ de force. En parallèle, les neurones de M1 ont montré des changements systématiques dans leurs activités, sur le plan unitaire et populationnel, dans chaque condition de champ de force, signalant les changements requis dans la direction, l’amplitude et le décours temporel de la sortie de force musculaire nécessaire pour compenser les 5 conditions de champs de force. Les changements dans le patron de réponse pour chaque champ de force étaient assez cohérents entre les divers neurones de M1, ce qui suggère que la plupart des neurones de M1 contribuent à la compensation de toutes les conditions de champs de force, conformément aux prédictions du modèle MOSAIC. Aussi, cette modulation de l’activité neuronale ne supporte pas l’hypothèse d’une organisation fortement modulaire de M1.

Neuronal Assembly Detection and Cell Membership Specification by Principal Component Analysis

LOPES-DOS-SANTOS, V. , CONDE-OCAZIONEZ, S. ; NICOLELIS, M. A. L. , RIBEIRO, S. T. , TORT, A. B. L. . Neuronal assembly detection and cell membership specification by principal component analysis. Plos One, v. 6, p. e20996, 2011.

Local Field Potentials in the Gustatory Cortex Carry Taste Information

It has been recently shownthat localfield potentials (LFPs)fromthe auditory and visual cortices carry information about sensory stimuli, but whether this is a universal property of sensory cortices remains to be determined. Moreover, little is known about the temporal dynamics of sensory information contained in LFPs following stimulus onset. Here we investigated the time course of the amount of stimulus information in LFPs and spikes from the gustatory cortex of awake rats subjected to tastants and water delivery on the tongue. We found that the phase and amplitude of multiple LFP frequencies carry information about stimuli, which have specific time courses after stimulus delivery. The information carried by LFP phase and amplitude was independent within frequency bands, since the joint information exhibited neither synergy nor redundancy. Tastant information in LFPs was also independent and had a different time course from the information carried by spikes. These findings support the hypothesis that the brain uses different frequency channels to dynamically code for multiple features of a stimulus.