A review of preschool children's physical activity and sedentary time using objective measures

CONTEXT: Identifying current physical activity levels and sedentary time of preschool children is important for informing government policy and community initiatives. This paper reviewed studies reporting on physical activity and time spent sedentary among preschool-aged children (2-5 years) using objective measures. EVIDENCE ACQUISITION: Databases were searched for studies published up to and including April 2013 that reported on, or enabled the calculation of, the proportion of time preschool children spent sedentary and in light- and moderate to vigorous-intensity physical activity. A total of 40 publications met the inclusion criteria for physical activity and 31 met the inclusion criteria for sedentary time. Objective measures included ActiGraph, Actiwatch, Actical, Actiheart, and RT3 accelerometers, direct observation, and Quantum XL telemetry heart rate monitoring. Data were analyzed in May 2013. EVIDENCE SYNTHESIS: Considerable variation in prevalence estimates existed. The proportion of time children spent sedentary ranged from 34% to 94%. The time spent in light-intensity physical activity and moderate to vigorous-intensity physical activity ranged from 4% to 33% and 2% to 41%, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: The considerable variation of prevalence estimates makes it difficult to determine the "true" prevalence of physical activity and sedentary time in preschool children. Future research should aim to reduce inconsistencies in the employed methodologies to better understand preschoolers' physical activity levels and sedentary behavior.

Stochastic analysis of transit route segments' passenger load variation for capacity and quality of service assessment

This paper investigates stochastic analysis of transit segment hourly passenger load factor variation for transit capacity and quality of service (QoS) analysis using Automatic Fare Collection data for a premium radial bus route in Brisbane, Australia. It compares stochastic analysis to traditional peak hour factor (PHF) analysis to gain further insight into variability of transit route segments’ passenger loading during a study hour. It demonstrates that hourly design load factor is a useful method of modeling a route segment’s capacity and QoS time history across the study weekday. This analysis method is readily adaptable to different passenger load standards by adjusting design percentile, reflecting either a more relaxed or more stringent condition. This paper also considers hourly coefficient of variation of load factor as a capacity and QoS assessment measure, in particular through its relationships with hourly average and design load factors. Smaller value reflects uniform passenger loading, which is generally indicative of well dispersed passenger boarding demands and good schedule maintenance. Conversely, higher value may be indicative of pulsed or uneven passenger boarding demands, poor schedule maintenance, and/or bus bunching. An assessment table based on hourly coefficient of variation of load factor is developed and applied to this case study. Inferences are drawn for a selection of study hours across the weekday studied.

Stochastic analysis of transit route segments' passenger load variation for capacity & quality of service assessment

This study uses weekday Automatic Fare Collection (AFC) data on a premium bus line in Brisbane, Australia •Stochastic analysis is compared to peak hour factor (PHF) analysis for insight into passenger loading variability •Hourly design load factor (e.g. 88th percentile) is found to be a useful method of modeling a segment’s passenger demand time-history across a study weekday, for capacity and QoS assessment •Hourly coefficient of variation of load factor is found to be a useful QoS and operational assessment measure, particularly through its relationship with hourly average load factor, and with design load factor •An assessment table based on hourly coefficient of variation of load factor is developed from the case study

Rainfall variability drives interannual variation in N2O emissions from a humid, subtropical pasture

Variations in interannual rainfall totals can lead to large uncertainties in annual N2O emission budget estimates from short term field studies. The interannual variation in nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions from a subtropical pasture in Queensland, Australia, was examined using continuous measurements of automated chambers over 2 consecutive years. Nitrous oxide emissions were highest during the summer months and were highly episodic, related more to the size and distribution of rain events than soil water content. Over 48% of the total N2O emitted was lost in just 16% of measurement days. Interannual variation in annual N2O estimates was high, with cumulative emissions increasing with decreasing rainfall. Cumulative emissions averaged 1826.7 ± 199.9 g N2O-N ha−1 yr−1 over the two year period, though emissions from 2008 (2148 ± 273 g N2O-N ha−1 yr−1) were 42% higher than 2007 (1504 ± 126 g N2O-N ha−1 yr−1). This increase in annual emissions coincided with almost half of the summer precipitation from 2007 to 2008. Emissions dynamics were chiefly driven by the distribution and size of rain events which varied on a seasonal and annual basis. Sampling frequency effects on cumulative N2O flux estimation were assessed using a jackknife technique to inform future manual sampling campaigns. Test subsets of the daily measured data were generated for the pasture and two adjacent land-uses (rainforest and lychee orchard) by selecting measured flux values at regular time intervals ranging from 1 to 30 days. Errors associated with weekly sampling were up to 34% of the sub-daily mean and were highly biased towards overestimation if strategically sampled following rain events. Sampling time of day also played a critical role. Morning sampling best represented the 24 hour mean in the pasture, whereas sampling at noon proved the most accurate in the shaded rainforest and lychee orchard.

Geographical and morphological variation within and between colour phases in Coris julis (L. 1758), a protogynous marine fish

The possible differences between sexes in patterns of morphological variation in geographical space have been explored only in gonochorist freshwater species. We explored patterns of body shape variation in geographical space in a marine sequential hermaphrodite species, Coris julis (L. 1758), analyzing variation both within and between colour phases, through the use of geometric morphometrics and spatially-explicit statistical analyses. We also tested for the association of body shape with two environmental variables: temperature and chlorophyll a concentration, as obtained from time-series of satellite-derived data. Both colour phases showed a significant morphological variation in geographical space and patterns of variation divergent between phases. Although the morphological variation was qualitatively similar, individuals in the initial colour phase showed a more marked variation than individuals in the terminal phase. Body shape showed a weak but significant correlation with environmental variables, which was more pronounced in primary specimens.

Expectation and variation with a virtual die

By the time students reach the middle years they have experienced many chance activities based on dice. Common among these are rolling one die to explore the relationship of frequency and theoretical probability, and rolling two dice and summing the outcomes to consider their probabilities. Although dice may be considered overused by some, the advantage they offer is a familiar context within which to explore much more complex concepts. If the basic chance mechanism of the device is understood, it is possible to enter quickly into an arena of more complex concepts. This is what happened with a two hour activity engaged in by four classes of Grade 6 students in the same school. The activity targeted the concepts of variation and expectation. The teachers held extended discussions with their classes on variation and expectation at the beginning of the activity, with students contributing examples of the two concepts from their own experience. These notions are quite sophisticated for Grade 6, but the underlying concepts describe phenomena that students encounter every day. For example, time varies continuously; sporting results vary from game to game; the maximum temperature varies from day to day. However, there is an expectation about tomorrow’s maximum temperature based on the expert advice from the weather bureau. There may also be an expectation about a sporting result based on the participants’ previous results. It is this juxtaposition that makes life interesting. Variation hence describes the differences we see in phenomena around us. In a scenario displaying variation, expectation describes the effort to characterise or summarise the variation and perhaps make a prediction about the message arising from the scenario. The explicit purpose of the activity described here was to use the familiar scenario of rolling a die to expose these two concepts. Because the students had previously experienced rolling physical dice they knew instinctively about the variation that occurs across many rolls and about the theoretical expectation that each side should “come up” one-sixth of the time. They had observed the instances of the concepts in action, but had not consolidated the underlying terminology to describe it. As the two concepts are so fundamental to understanding statistics, we felt it would be useful to begin building in the familiar environment of rolling a die. Because hand-held dice limit the explorations students can undertake, the classes used the soft-ware TinkerPlots (Konold & Miller, 2011) to simulate rolling a die multiple times.

Use of observed within-person variation of cardiac troponin in emergency department patients for determination of biological variation and percentage and absolute reference change values

BACKGROUND Many patients presenting to the emergency department (ED) for assessment of possible acute coronary syndrome (ACS) have low cardiac troponin concentrations that change very little on repeat blood draw. It is unclear if a lack of change in cardiac troponin concentration can be used to identify acutely presenting patients at low risk of ACS. METHODS We used the hs-cTnI assay from Abbott Diagnostics, which can detect cTnI in the blood of nearly all people. We identified a population of ED patients being assessed for ACS with repeat cTnI measurement who ultimately were proven to have no acute cardiac disease at the time of presentation. We used data from the repeat sampling to calculate total within-person CV (CV(T)) and, knowing the assay analytical CV (CV(A)), we could calculate within-person biological variation (CV(i)), reference change values (RCVs), and absolute RCV delta cTnI concentrations. RESULTS We had data sets on 283 patients. Men and women had similar CV(i) values of approximately 14%, which was similar at all concentrations <40 ng/L. The biological variation was not dependent on the time interval between sample collections (t = 1.5-17 h). The absolute delta critical reference change value was similar no matter what the initial cTnI concentration was. More than 90% of subjects had a critical reference change value <5 ng/L, and 97% had values of <10 ng/L. CONCLUSIONS With this hs-cTnI assay, delta cTnI seems to be a useful tool for rapidly identifying ED patients at low risk for possible ACS.

On the sensitivity of elastic waves due to structural damages:Time-frequency based indexing method

Time-frequency analysis of various simulated and experimental signals due to elastic wave scattering from damage are performed using wavelet transform (WT) and Hilbert-Huang transform (HHT) and their performances are compared in context of quantifying the damages. Spectral finite element method is employed for numerical simulation of wave scattering. An analytical study is carried out to study the effects of higher-order damage parameters on the reflected wave from a damage. Based on this study, error bounds are computed for the signals in the spectral and also on the time-frequency domains. It is shown how such an error bound can provide all estimate of error in the modelling of wave propagation in structure with damage. Measures of damage based on WT and HHT is derived to quantify the damage information hidden in the signal. The aim of this study is to obtain detailed insights into the problem of (1) identifying localised damages (2) dispersion of multifrequency non-stationary signals after they interact with various types of damage and (3) quantifying the damages. Sensitivity analysis of the signal due to scattered wave based on time-frequency representation helps to correlate the variation of damage index measures with respect to the damage parameters like damage size and material degradation factors.

Nonverbal predication in Erzya : Studies on morphosyntactic variation and part of speech distinctions

This dissertation consists of four articles and an introduction. The five parts address the same topic, nonverbal predication in Erzya, from different perspectives. The work is at the same time linguistic typology and Uralic studies. The findings based on a large corpus of empirical Erzya data, which was collected using several different methods and included recordings of the spoken language, made it possible for the present study to apply, then test and finally discuss the previous theories based on cross-linguistic data. Erzya makes use of multiple predication patterns which vary from totally analytic to the morphologically very complex. Nonverbal predicate clause types are classified on the basis of propositional acts in clauses denoting class-membership, identity, property and location. The predicates of these clauses are nouns, adjectives and locational expressions, respectively. The following three predication strategies in Erzya nonverbal predication can be identified: i. the zero-copula construction, ii. the predicative suffix construction and iii. the copula construction. It has been suggested that verbs and nouns cannot be clearly distinguished on morphological grounds when functioning as predicates in Erzya. This study shows that even though predicativity must not be considered a sufficient tool for defining parts of speech in any language, the Erzya lexical classes of adjective, noun and verb can be distinguished from each other also in predicate position. The relative frequency and degree of obligation for using the predicative suffix construction decreases when moving left to right on the scale verb adjective/locative noun ( identificational statement). The predicative suffix is the main pattern in the present tense over the whole domain of nonverbal predication in Standard Erzya, but if it is replaced it is most likely to be with a zero-copula construction in a nominal predication. This study exploits the theory of (a)symmetry for the first time in order to describe verbal vs. nonverbal predication. It is shown that the asymmetry of paradigms and constructions differentiates the lexical classes. Asymmetrical structures are motivated by functional level asymmetry. Variation in predication as such adds to the complexity of the grammar. When symmetric structures are employed, the functional complexity of grammar decreases, even though morphological complexity increases. The genre affects the employment of predication strategies in Erzya. There are differences in the relative frequency of the patterns, and some patterns are totally lacking from some of the data. The clearest difference is that the past tense predicative suffix construction occurs relatively frequently in Standard Erzya, while it occurs infrequently in the other data. Also, the predicative suffixes of the present tense are used more regularly in written Standard Erzya than in any other genre. The genre also affects the incidence of the translative in uľ(ń)ems copula constructions. In translations from Russian to Erzya the translative case is employed relatively frequently in comparison to other data. This study reveals differences between the two Mordvinic languages Erzya and Moksha. The predicative suffixes (bound person markers) of the present tense are used more regularly in Moksha in all kinds of nonverbal predicate clauses compared to Erzya. It should further be observed that identificational statements are encoded with a predicative suffix in Moksha, but seldom in Erzya. Erzya clauses are more frequently encoded using zero-constructions, displaying agreement in number only.

Temporal variation in arthropod sampling effectiveness: The case for using the beat sheet method in cotton

Predatory insects and spiders are key elements of integrated pest management (IPM) programmes in agricultural crops such as cotton. Management decisions in IPM programmes should to be based on a reliable and efficient method for counting both predators and pests. Knowledge of the temporal constraints that influence sampling is required because arthropod abundance estimates are likely to vary over a growing season and within a day. Few studies have adequately quantified this effect using the beat sheet, a potentially important sampling method. We compared the commonly used methods of suction and visual sampling to the beat sheet, with reference to an absolute cage clamp method for determining the abundance of various arthropod taxa over 5 weeks. There were significantly more entomophagous arthropods recorded using the beat sheet and cage clamp methods than by using suction or visual sampling, and these differences were more pronounced as the plants grew. In a second trial, relative estimates of entomophagous and phytophagous arthropod abundance were made using beat sheet samples collected over a day. Beat sheet estimates of the abundance of only eight of the 43 taxa examined were found to vary significantly over a day. Beat sheet sampling is recommended in further studies of arthropod abundance in cotton, but researchers and pest management advisors should bear in mind the time of season and time of day effects.

Absolute quantitation of Marek's disease virus and Herpesvirus of turkeys in chicken lymphocyte, feather tip and dust samples using real-time PCR

The further development of Taqman quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) assays for the absolute quantitation of Marek's disease virus serotype 1 (MDV1) and Herpesvirus of turkeys (HVT) viruses is described and the sensitivity and reproducibility of each assay reported. Using plasmid DNA copies, the lower limit of detection was determined to be 5 copies for the MDV1 assay and 75 copies for the HVT assay. Both assays were found to be highly reproducible for Ct values and calculated copy numbers with mean intra- and inter-assay coefficients of variation being less than 5% for Ct and 20% for calculated copy number. The genome copy number of MDV1 and HVT viruses was quantified in PBL and feather tips from experimentally infected chickens, and field poultry dust samples. Parallelism was demonstrated between the plasmid-based standard curves, and standard curves derived from infected spleen material containing both viral and host DNA, allowing the latter to be used for absolute quantification. These methods should prove useful for the reliable differentiation and absolute quantitation of MDV1 and HVT viruses in a wide range of samples.

Using harvest statistics to monitor temporal variation in kangaroo density and harvest rate

Management of the commercial harvest of kangaroos relies on quotas set annually as a proportion of regular estimates of population size. Surveys to generate these estimates are expensive and, in the larger states, logistically difficult; a cheaper alternative is desirable. Rainfall is a disappointingly poor predictor of kangaroo rate of increase in many areas, but harvest statistics (sex ratio, carcass weight, skin size and animals shot per unit time) potentially offer cost-effective indirect monitoring of population abundance (and therefore trend) and status (i.e. under-or overharvest). Furthermore, because harvest data are collected continuously and throughout the harvested areas, they offer the promise of more intensive and more representative coverage of harvest areas than aerial surveys do. To be useful, harvest statistics would need to have a close and known relationship with either population size or harvest rate. We assessed this using longterm (11-22 years) data for three kangaroo species (Macropus rufus, M. giganteus and M. fuliginosus) and common wallaroos (M. robustus) across South Australia, New South Wales and Queensland. Regional variation in kangaroo body size, population composition, shooter efficiency and selectivity required separate analyses in different regions. Two approaches were taken. First, monthly harvest statistics were modelled as a function of a number of explanatory variables, including kangaroo density, harvest rate and rainfall. Second, density and harvest rate were modelled as a function of harvest statistics. Both approaches incorporated a correlated error structure. Many but not all regions had relationships with sufficient precision to be useful for indirect monitoring. However, there was no single relationship that could be applied across an entire state or across species. Combined with rainfall-driven population models and applied at a regional level, these relationships could be used to reduce the frequency of aerial surveys without compromising decisions about harvest management.

Pharmacogenetic Variation at CYP2D6, CYP2C9, and CYP2C19: Population Genetic and Forensic Aspects

Pharmacogenetics deals with genetically determined variation in drug response. In this context, three phase I drug-metabolizing enzymes, CYP2D6, CYP2C9, and CYP2C19, have a central role, affecting the metabolism of about 20-30% of clinically used drugs. Since genes coding for these enzymes in human populations exhibit high genetic polymorphism, they are of major pharmacogenetic importance. The aims of this study were to develop new genotyping methods for CYP2D6, CYP2C9, and CYP2C19 that would cover the most important genetic variants altering the enzyme activity, and, for the first time, to describe the distribution of genetic variation at these loci on global and microgeographic scales. In addition, pharmacogenetics was applied to a postmortem forensic setting to elucidate the role of genetic variation in drug intoxications, focusing mainly on cases related to tricyclic antidepressants, which are commonly involved in fatal drug poisonings in Finland. Genetic variability data were obtained by genotyping new population samples by the methods developed based on PCR and multiplex single-nucleotide primer extension reaction, as well as by collecting data from the literature. Data consisted of 138, 129, and 146 population samples for CYP2D6, CYP2C9, and CYP2C19, respectively. In addition, over 200 postmortem forensic cases were examined with respect to drug and metabolite concentrations and genotypic variation at CYP2D6 and CYP2C19. The distribution of genetic variation within and among human populations was analyzed by descriptive statistics and variance analysis and by correlating the genetic and geographic distances using Mantel tests and spatial autocorrelation. The correlation between phenotypic and genotypic variation in drug metabolism observed in postmortem cases was also analyzed statistically. The genotyping methods developed proved to be informative, technically feasible, and cost-effective. Detailed molecular analysis of CYP2D6 genetic variation in a global survey of human populations revealed that the pattern of variation was similar to those of neutral genomic markers. Most of the CYP2D6 diversity was observed within populations, and the spatial pattern of variation was best described as clinal. On the other hand, genetic variants of CYP2D6, CYP2C9, and CYP2C19 associated with altered enzymatic activity could reach extremely high frequencies in certain geographic regions. Pharmacogenetic variation may also be significantly affected by population-specific demographic histories, as seen within the Finnish population. When pharmacogenetics was applied to a postmortem forensic setting, a correlation between amitriptyline metabolic ratios and genetic variation at CYP2D6 and CYP2C19 was observed in the sample material, even in the presence of confounding factors typical for these cases. In addition, a case of doxepin-related fatal poisoning was shown to be associated with a genetic defect at CYP2D6. Each of the genes studied showed a distinct variation pattern in human populations and high frequencies of altered activity variants, which may reflect the neutral evolution and/or selective pressures caused by dietary or environmental exposure. The results are relevant also from the clinical point of view since the genetic variation at CYP2D6, CYP2C9, and CYP2C19 already has a range of clinical applications, e.g. in cancer treatment and oral anticoagulation therapy. This study revealed that pharmacogenetics may also contribute valuable information to the medicolegal investigation of sudden, unexpected deaths.

Rhizoctonia solani as a potato pathogen : Variation of isolates in Finland and host response

Rhizoctonia solani is a soil inhabiting basidiomycetous fungus able to induce a wide range of symptoms in many plant species. This genetically complex species is divided to 13 anastomosis groups (AG), of which AG-3 is specialized to infect potato. However, also a few other AGs are able to infect or live in close contact with potato. On potato, R. solani infection causes two main types of diseases including stem canker observed as a dark brown lesions on developing stems and stolons, and black scurf that develops on new tubers close to the time of harvest. These disease symptoms are collectively called a ‘Rhizoctonia disease complex’. Between the growing seasons R. solani survives in soil and plant debri as sclerotia or as the sclerotia called black scurf on potato tubers which when used as seed offer the main route for dispersal of the fungus to new areas. The reasons for the dominance of AG-3 on potato seem to be attributable to its highly specialization to potato and its ability to infect and form sclerotia efficiently at low temperatures. In this study, a large nationwide survey of R. solani isolates was made in potato crops in Finland. Almost all characterized isolates belonged to AG-3. Additionally, three other AGs (AG-2-1, AG-4 and AG-5) were found associated with symptoms on potato plants but they were weaker pathogens on potato than AG-3 as less prone to form black scurf. According to phylogenetic analysis of the internal transcribed sequences (ITS) of the ribosomal RNA genes the Finnish AG-3 isolates are closely related to each other even though a wide variation of physiological features was observed between them. Detailed analysis of the ITS regions revealed single nucleotide polymorphism in 14 nucleotide positions of ITS-1 and ITS-2. Additionally, compensatory base changes on ITS-2 were detected which suggests that potato-infecting R. solani AG-3 could be considered as a separate species instead of an AG of R. solani. For the first time, molecular defence responses were studied and detected during the early phases of interaction between R. solani AG-3 and potato. Extensive systemic signalling for defence exploiting several known defence pathways was activated as soon as R. solani came into close contact with the base of a sprout. The defence response was strong enough to protect vulnerable sprout tips from new attacks by the pathogen. These results at least partly explain why potato emergence is eventually successful even under heavy infection pressure by R. solani.

Variation in leaf structure of the invasive Madeira vine (Anredera cordifolia, Basellaceae) at different light levels

Madeira vine (Anredera cordifolia (Ten.) Steenis) is a climber in the angiosperm family Basellaceae. It is native to South America and has naturalised in Australia. It is regarded as a serious environmental weed because of the structural damage it causes to native vegetation. The present study, for the first time, documents anatomical and morphological traits of the leaves of A. cordifolia and considers their implications for its ecology and physiology. Plants were grown under three different light levels, and anatomical and morphological leaf characters were compared among light levels, among cohorts, and with documented traits of the related species, Basella alba L. Stomata were present on both the adaxial and abaxial sides of the leaf, with significantly more stomata on the abaxial side and under high light. This may account for the ability of this species to fix large amounts of carbon and rapidly respond to light gaps. The leaves had very narrow veins and no sclerenchyma, suggesting a low construction cost that is associated with invasive plants. There was no significant difference in any of the traits among different cohorts, which agrees with the claim that A. cordifolia primarily propagates vegetatively. The anatomy and morphology of A. cordifolia was similar to that of B. alba.