Reducing the mapping between perception and action facilitates imitation

This study investigated two hypotheses regarding the mapping of perception to action during imitation. The first hypothesis predicted that as children’s cognitive capacities increase the tendency to map one goal and disregard others during imitation should decrease. This hypothesis was tested by comparing the performances of 168 4- to 7-year-olds in a gestural imitation task developed by Bekkering, Wohlschläger, and Gattis. The second hypothesis predicted that reducing the mapping between perception and action should reduce the demands on the cognitive resources of the child. This hypothesis was tested by creating a condition in which perception and action overlapped by sharing objects between experimenter and child. In three experimental conditions, an adult modelled four gestures, directed at either: 1) one of two sets of round stickers (proprietary objects); 2) the same location on the table, without any sticker (no objects); or 3) one set of round stickers, which were shared with the child (shared objects). The results confirmed both hypotheses. Four- and five-year-olds imitated less accurately when imitation involved mapping of both objects and movements (proprietary and shared objects) than when imitation involved mapping movements only (no objects). Seven-year-olds imitated accurately in all three conditions, demonstrating that increased cognitive capacity allowed them to map multiple goals from perception to action. Most importantly, reducing the mapping between perception and action in the shared objects condition facilitated imitation, specifically for the transitional group, 6-year-olds. We conclude that mapping between perception and action is not direct, but resembles mapping relations in analogical reasoning: cognitive processes mediate mapping from perception to action.

An fMRI study of Joint Attention Experience

Although much is now known about eye movement detection, little is known about the higher cognitive processes involved in joint attention. We developed video stimuli which when watched, engender an experience of joint attention in the observer. This allowed us to compare an experience of joint attention to nonjoint attention within an fMRI scanning environment. Joint attention was associated with activity in the ventromedial frontal cortex, the left superior frontal gyrus (BA10), cingulate cortex, and caudate nuclei. The ventromedial frontal cortex has been consistently shown to be activated during mental state attribution tasks. BA10 may serve a cognitive integration function, which in this case seems to utilize a perception–action matching process. The activation we identified in BA10 overlaps with a location of increased grey matter density that we recently found to be associated with autistic spectrum disorder. This study therefore constitutes evidence that the neural substrate of joint attention also serves a mentalizing function. The developmental failure of this substrate in the left anterior frontal lobe may be important in the etiology of autistic spectrum disorder.

The use of cues for attention in ancient Greek art: aspects that influence concentration in the work of art and its elements

The goal of this study is to identify cues for the cognitive process of attention in ancient Greek art, aiming to find confirmation of its possible use by ancient Greek audiences and artists. Evidence of cues that trigger attention’s psychological dispositions was searched through content analysis of image reproductions of ancient Greek sculpture and fine vase painting from the archaic to the Hellenistic period - ca. 7th -1st cent. BC. Through this analysis, it was possible to observe the presence of cues that trigger orientation to the work of art (i.e. amplification, contrast, emotional salience, simplification, symmetry), of a cue that triggers a disseminate attention to the parts of the work (i.e. distribution of elements) and of cues that activate selective attention to specific elements in the work of art (i.e. contrast of elements, salient color, central positioning of elements, composition regarding the flow of elements and significant objects). Results support the universality of those dispositions, probably connected with basic competencies that are hard-wired in the nervous system and in the cognitive processes.

Temporal Framing in the Conte: From Theoretical Debate to Oral Story Performance

This article explores ‘temporal framing’ in the oral conte. The starting point is a recent theoretical debate around the temporal structure of narrative discourse which has highlighted a fundamental tension between the approaches of two of the most influential current theoretical models, one of which is ‘framing theory’. The specific issue concerns the role of temporal adverbials appearing at the head of the clause (e.g. dates, relative temporal adverbials such as le lendemain) versus that of temporal ‘connectives’ such as puis, ensuite, etc. Through an analysis of a corpus of contes performed at the Conservatoire contemporain de Littérature Orale, I shall explore temporal framing in the light of this theoretical debate, and shall argue that, as with other types of narrative discourse, framing is primarily a structural rather than a temporal device in oral narrative. In a final section, I shall further argue, using Kintsch’s construction-integration model of narrative processing, that framing is fundamental to the cognitive processes involved in oral story performance.

Folkbiology doesn’t come from Folkpsychology: evidence from Yukatek Maya in cross-cultural perspective

Nearly all psychological research on basic cognitive processes of category formation and reasoning uses sample populations associated with large research institutions in technologically-advanced societies. Lopsided attention to a select participant pool risks biasing interpretation, no matter how large the sample or how statistically reliable the results. The experiments in this article address this limitation. Earlier research with urban-USA children suggests that biological concepts are (1) thoroughly enmeshed with their notions of naive psychology, and (2) strikingly human-centered. Thus, if children are to develop a causally appropriate model of biology, in which humans are seen as simply one animal among many, they must undergo fundamental conceptual change. Such change supposedly occurs between 7 and 10 years of age, when the human-centered view is discarded. The experiments reported here with Yukatek Maya speakers challenge the empirical generality and theoretical importance of these claims. Part 1 shows that young Maya children do not anthropocentrically interpret the biological world. The anthropocentric bias of American children appears to owe to a lack of cultural familiarity with non-human biological kinds, not to initial causal understanding of folkbiology as such. Part 2 shows that by age of 4-5 (the earliest age tested in this regard) Yukatek Maya children employ a concept of innate species potential or underlying essence much as urban American children seem to, namely, as an inferential framework for understanding the affiliation of an organism to a biological species, and for projecting known and unknown biological properties to organisms in the face of uncertainty. Together, these experiments indicate that folkpsychology cannot be the initial source of folkbiology. They also underscore the possibility of a species-wide and domain-specific basis for acquiring knowledge about the living world that is constrained and modified but not caused or created by prior nonbiological thinking and subsequent cultural experience.

The effects and side-effects of statistics education: Psychology students’ (mis-)conceptions of probability

In three studies we looked at two typical misconceptions of probability: the representativeness heuristic, and the equiprobability bias. The literature on statistics education predicts that some typical errors and biases (e.g., the equiprobability bias) increase with education, whereas others decrease. This is in contrast with reasoning theorists’ prediction who propose that education reduces misconceptions in general. They also predict that students with higher cognitive ability and higher need for cognition are less susceptible to biases. In Experiments 1 and 2 we found that the equiprobability bias increased with statistics education, and it was negatively correlated with students’ cognitive abilities. The representativeness heuristic was mostly unaffected by education, and it was also unrelated to cognitive abilities. In Experiment 3 we demonstrated through an instruction manipulation (by asking participants to think logically vs. rely on their intuitions) that the reason for these differences was that these biases originated in different cognitive processes.

The role of working memory capacity in multiple-cue probability learning

Multiple-cue probability learning (MCPL) involves learning to predict a criterion when outcome feedback is provided for multiple cues. A great deal of research suggests that working memory capacity (WMC) is involved in a wide range of tasks that draw on higher level cognitive processes. In three experiments, we examined the role of WMC in MCPL by introducing measures of working memory capacity, as well as other task manipulations. While individual differences in WMC positively predicted performance in some kinds of multiple-cue tasks, performance on other tasks was entirely unrelated to these differences. Performance on tasks that contained negative cues was correlated with working memory capacity, as well as measures of explicit knowledge obtained in the learning process. When the relevant cues predicted positively, however, WMC became irrelevant. The results are discussed in terms of controlled and automatic processes in learning and judgement. © 2011 The Experimental Psychology Society.

Intra-operative decision making by ophthalmic surgeons

Research on surgical decision making and risk management usually focuses on peri-operative care, despite the magnitude and frequency of intra-operative risks. The aim of this study was to examine ophthalmic surgeons' intra-operative decisions and risk management strategies in order to explore differences in cognitive processes.

The development of Temporal Cognition

Time features in two key ways in cognition, each of which is discussed in turn in this chapter: time is processed as a dimension of stimuli or events, and time is represented as a framework in which events can be located. Section 1 examines the first of these from a developmental perspective, by reviewing research on age-related changes in the accuracy of duration processing. The Piagetian approach linked changes in duration processing to the development of a concept of time as a dimension of events separable from other event dimensions. This is contrasted with recent research conducted within the framework of Scalar Expectancy Theory, which models development in terms of changes in components of specialized timing mechanisms. Section 2 discusses developmental changes in the temporal frameworks that children use to represent the locations of events. Although as adults, we represent times as locations on a linear framework stretching from the past, to the present, and into the future, this way of representing time is not developmentally basic. A model is proposed of developmental stages in the acquisition of a mature temporal framework. The chapter concludes by considering two themes that cut across Section 1 and 2: the issue of whether there are both qualitative and quantitative change in children’s temporal abilities, and the link between temporal and spatial cognition.

Opening Eyes to Opera: the process of translation for blind and partially-sighted audiences

In today’s rapidly developing digital age and increasingly socially-aware society, the notion of media accessibility is evolving in response to shifting audience expectations. Performing arts and media, such as opera, are called upon to include all audiences, and related audiovisual translation methods are progressing in this direction. These comprise audio description and touch tours for the blind and partially-sighted, two relatively new translation modalities which are consumer-oriented and require an original research design for the analysis of the translation processes involved. This research design follows two fundamental principles: (1) audience reception studies should be an integral part of the investigation into the translation process; and (2) the translation process is regarded as a network. Therefore, this chapter explores the unique translation processes of audio description and touch tours within the context of live opera from the perspective of actor-network theory and by providing an overview of a reception project. Through discussion of the methodology and findings, this chapter addresses the question of the impact of audience reception on the translation process.

The idea, the machine, and the art: word and image in the 21st century

Taking in recent advances in neuroscience and digital technology, Gander and Garland assess the state of the inter-arts in America and the Western world, exploring and questioning the primacy of affect in an increasingly hypertextual everyday environment. In this analysis they signal a move beyond W. J. T. Mitchell’s coinage of the ‘imagetext’ to an approach that centres the reader-viewer in a recognition, after John Dewey, of ‘art as experience’. New thinking in cognitive and computer sciences about the relationship between the body and the mind challenges any established definitions of ‘embodiment’, ‘materiality’, ‘virtuality’ and even ‘intelligence, they argue, whilst ‘Extended Mind Theory’, they note, marries our cognitive processes with the material forms with which we engage, confirming and complicating Marshall McLuhan’s insight, decades ago, that ‘all media are “extensions of man”’. In this chapter, Gander and Garland open paths and suggest directions into understandings and critical interpretations of new and emerging imagetext worlds and experiences.

Cognition, metacognition and patient safety

This article explores the factors that contribute to patient safety incidents. It highlights the importance of human factors in influencing the clinician's performance. Rather than focusing on clinical skills, the article explores the range of non-technical skills which are seen to each contribute to patient safety, including: communication, teamworking, leadership, active followership, situational awareness, decision-making, assertiveness, and workload management. It asks how cognitive processes can influence safe decision-making.

Construção de instrumentos de avaliação da dislexia

Com este trabalho, pretendemos descrever a construção da Bateria de Avaliação da Dislexia de Desenvolvimento (BADD), caracterizá-la metricamente, apresentar e discutir os resultados. Este instrumento de avaliação da dislexia foi aplicado a 555 crianças portuguesas, com idades compreendidas entre os 7 e os 12 anos de idade. Analisamos os processos cognitivos implicados na aprendizagem da leitura e escrita e aqueles que se encontram afectados em crianças com dislexia de desenvolvimento, nomeadamente a consciência fonológica, memória fonológica de trabalho, leitura e velocidade, escrita sob ditado, cálculo matemático, compreensão de frases, memória de curto e longo prazo e sequências. Foram assim comparadas as pontuações totais de acertos por teste entre crianças normoléxicas e crianças disléxicas, no sentido de verificar em que testes estes se diferenciam e, neste sentido, constituir um conjunto de testes que permitam uma avaliação da dislexia de desenvolvimento. Através da análise dos resultados ao nível da consistência interna do instrumento, verificamos que esta bateria de testes apresenta uma consistência elevada, aumentando após a exclusão do item Teste de Velocidade de Leitura, tempo, que será considerado como item isolado e utilizado à parte da bateria. Outro dos objectivos deste estudo foi o de reforçar a hipótese originalmente colocada de que a performance dos disléxicos nestes testes seria claramente inferior à do grupo controlo, permitindo desta forma diferenciar os dois grupos. Neste sentido, podemos concluir que a validação de uma bateria nestes moldes vem reforçar a importância de testes psicométricos como um dos elementos de uma avaliação psicológica, tornando-se fundamental para uma avaliação atempada e coerente com o quadro teórico da dislexia de desenvolvimento.

Capacidade para o trabalho e função executiva

O presente trabalho pretende caracterizar a associação existente entre a função cognitiva executiva e a capacidade para o trabalho em profissionais de saúde (médicos e enfermeiros) e profissionais de educação (professores). A função cognitiva executiva é definida como uma série de processos cognitivos de ordem superior (capacidade de planeamento, raciocínio abstrato, flexibilidade cognitiva e resolução de problemas) determinantes no controlo e coordenação de operações cognitivas e fundamentais na organização e monitorização do comportamento humano. A integridade destas funções, são determinantes para a realização adequada de tarefas da vida diária, incluindo o contexto organizacional. A capacidade para trabalho é um forte preditor do desempenho laboral, sendo definida como a autoavaliação que o trabalhador faz do seu bem-estar no presente e no futuro próximo e da capacidade para assegurar o seu trabalho tendo em conta as exigências do mesmo, a saúde e os recursos psicológicos e cognitivos disponíveis. Assim, com o objetivo de compreender a relação entre estas duas variáveis em médicos, enfermeiros e professores, no presente trabalho utilizamos uma amostra composta por 218 sujeitos, sendo que 93 são enfermeiros, 100 professores (ensino secundário) e 25 médicos. Para avaliar as funções cognitivas executivas, nomeadamente a flexibilidade cognitiva e raciocínio abstrato não-verbal utilizamos o Halstead Category Test (HCT). Para avaliar a capacidade de planeamento e resolução de problemas, utilizamos a Torre de Hanoi (TH). Para determinamos o valor da capacidade para o trabalho, utilizamos o índice de capacidade para o trabalho. No sentido de controlar variáveis que poderiam influenciar esta relação, utilizamos Questionário Geral de Saúde (GHQ-12), escala de ansiedade-traço, Questionário de Personalidade de Eysenck, escala de satisfação no trabalho e uma questão dicotómica (Sim/Não) sobre o trabalho por turnos. Pela análise dos resultados, verificamos que alterações nas funções cognitivas executivas poderão prejudicar a capacidade para o trabalho. No entanto, verificamos que variáveis como a idade, trabalho por turnos, personalidade e saúde mental poderão exercer um efeito moderador desta relação. Por fim, em comparação com médicos, enfermeiros e professores, verificamos que os médicos e enfermeiros apresentam um maior prejuízo nas funções cognitivas executivas que os professores, mas não na capacidade para o trabalho. Como conclusão, o nosso trabalho contribuiu para uma melhor compreensão da ação das funções executivas em contexto laboral (em particular na área da saúde e educação), contribuindo para o desenvolvimento e implementação de programas de promoção de saúde laboral em contexto organizacional.

Role of Automated Open Source Systems in the Intelligence Analysis of a High-Level Domain Expert