Organisaation päätöksenteko ja tiedon rooli. Case: UPM-Kymmene Oyj, Kaukas

Tutkielman tavoitteena on selvittää, mihin päätöksenteko perustuu teollisuusyrityksessä. Tutkimuksessa kartoitettiin kohdeorganisaation päätöksentekijöiden näkemyksiä toimintaympäristöstään, itsestään päätöksentekijöinä ja päätöksenteosta sekä tiedosta ja sen käytöstä. Lisäksi sivutaan päätöksenteon sosiaalista luonnetta. Empiirisen tutkimuksen kohdeyksikkönä on UPM-Kymmene Oyj, Kaukas Lappeenrannassa. Tutkimus on toteutettu esimiestasolle suunnattuna lomakekyselynä lokakuussa 2003. Päätöksistä yleisimpiä olivat operatiivisen tason päätökset; taktisen ja strategisen tason päätöksiä tehtiin vähemmän. Päätöstilanteista useimmin kohdattuja olivat puolijäsentyneet ja jäsentyneet tilanteet, kun taas jäsentymättömät päätöstilanteet olivat harvinaisempia. Päätöksentekoprosesseista yleisimmin käytetty oli kirjallisuudessa taktiseen päätöstasoon ja puolijäsentyneisiin päätöstilanteisiin liitetty rajoitetun rationaalisuuden malliin perustuva vaiheittainen malli. Kirjallisuudessa strategiseen päätöksentekotasoon ja jäsentymättömiin päätöstilanteisiin liitetyn ns. iteratiivisesti vaiheittaisen mallin todettiin soveltuvan myös tämänkaltaiseen päätöksentekoon. Esimiehet pitivät toimintaympäristöään teollisuusyrityksessä pääasiallisesti orgaanisena. Tällaisessa ympäristössä vaikutussuhteet ja keinot ohjata ympäristöä perustuvat pitkälti vuorovaikutteisuuteen. Päätöksentekijöiden johtamistyylin todettiin olevan pikemminkin demokraattinen kuin autoritäärinen, mikä tukee edellä mainittuja tuloksia. Tiedon lähteistä päätöksenteon kannalta tärkeimpinä ja luotettavimpina koettiin henkilökohtaiset lähteet. Sisäiset lähteet nähtiin ulkoisia tärkeämpinä ja luotettavampina niin henkilökohtaisten, tekstimuotoisten kuin online-lähteidenkin osalta. Esimiesten todettiin hyödyntävän tosiasiatietoa, kokemusta ja intuitiota eri tavoin erilaisissa päätöstilanteissa, joten myös tehokkaat keinot tukea päätöksentekoa vaihtelevat päätöstyypeittäin. Tutkimuksen tulokset perustuvat kohderyhmän kyselylomakkeella kerättyihin mielipiteisiin. Käytetystä menetelmästä johtuen mielipiteiden taustatekijät ja todellinen toiminta organisaatiossa jäävät vielä avoimiksi. Tutkimustulosten syventäminen ja vahvistaminen sekä lisätiedon saaminen organisaation päätöksenteon todellisuudesta edellyttäisi empiiristä havainnointia tai vähintäänkin haastatteluja.

Intuïció, creativitat i cooperació

Imagineu que, just ara quan comenceu a llegir aquest article, sona el telèfon. Feu un gest per agafar-lo, però abans de tocar-lo teniu un pressentiment sobre la persona que us truca; intuïu qui deu ser, i potser fins i tot què us vol dir. Totes les persones tenim intuïcions, malgrat n'hi ha de més intuïtives que d'altres. La intuïció ha estat, durant molts anys, un tema molt discutit en ambients científics. D'una banda, perquè és impossible negar-ne l'existència. D'altra, perquè davant la manca d'explicacions científiques sovint s'ha relacionat amb un hipotètic"sisè sentit", a percepcions extrasensorials i, fins i tot, a revelacions divines o fenòmens paranormals. Tanmateix, que la ciència no hagués trobat encara una explicació prou satisfactòria no vol dir que no la tingui, malgrat la tendència que manifestem a omplir els buits de coneixement amb explicacions irracionals-en el sentit de què no estan basades en la raó-, fetes a mida. A vegades la intuïció es contraposa al raonament lògic, com un coneixement que apareix del"no res", però com han demostrat diversos treballs científics publicats recentment també té el seu lloc al cervell. I la seva història està estretament relacionada al fet de ser humans. D'on prové i de què serveix?

Dépression, quelle dépression?

Malgré les efforts de la neurobiologie et de l'épidé­miologie, la dépression reste un trouble aux contours flous. La question controversée de son dépistage par le généraliste en atteste, illustrant au passage certaines tensions entre la psychiatrie et la médecine générale. Nous suggérons un regard plus large sur la dépression, respectant la singularité du patient mais prenant en compte des processus sociaux potentiellement pathogènes. A l'heure des critères diagnostiques opérationnels, l'intuition clinique et le contexte socio-historique de la relation médecin-malade gardent leur pertinence. Despite intensive efforts in neurobiology and epidemiology, depression remains a diagnosis with blurred b. We illustrate this point by examining the controversial issue of systematic screening by GPs, which highlights tensions between psychiatry and general medicine. We suggest a broader perspective on depression, taking into account the patient's individuality, as well as potentially pathogenic social determinants. In the era of operational diagnostic criteria, clinical intuition and the wider sociological context of the doctor-patient relationship are relevant.

Ohjaajasta dramaturgiksi ja takaisin

Opinnäytetyössäni avaan tämänhetkistä teatterikäsitystäni dramaturgin ja ohjaajan näkökulmasta. Käytän esimerkkinä tuoreimman ohjaustyöni Nauruihmisen syntyprosessia ja eritoten Nauruihmistä esityksenä. Tarkastelen esityksen rakentamista niin dramaturgisten kuin esitysteoreettistenkin näkökulmien kautta ja pyrin avaamaan omaa työskentelyäni teatteriesityksen ohjaajana, joka toimii samalla esityksen dramaturgina. Dramaturgia muodostuu näin tavaksi ajatella teatteria ja nimenomaan teatteriesitystä. Aloitan esittelemällä merkittävimpiä tekijöitä, jotka ovat vaikuttaneet siihen, millaista teatteria haluan itse tehdä. Kerron viehtymyksestäni sanattomaan teatteriin ja erittelen ratkaisuani valita 700-sivuinen romaani oman esityskäsikirjoitukseni pohjalle. Tarkastelen ”uuden” ja ”vanhan” dramaturgian eroja postdraamallisen teatterin valossa ja niitä tärkeimpiä lähtökohtia, joiden pohjalta Nauruihminen rakentui. Pohdin tekstin ja esityksen välistä suhdetta sekä kuvaan matkaani aristoteelisesta draamasta uuteen ja laajempaan tapaan käsitellä tekstiä - ja ennen kaikkea esitystä. Puran Nauruihmisen harjoituskautta keskittyen etenkin ohjaajantyön haasteisiin sekä omaan työskentelyyni tunteiden ja intuition varassa. Kerron esiintymisen ja esittämisen tapojen etsinnöistä ja siitä visuaalisuuden, musiikin ja tunnelmien saumattomasta kudelmasta, jota teatteriesityksen tekeminen mielestäni parhaimmillaan on. Nostan esiin näyttelijöiden panoksen lisäksi myös muun työryhmän merkityksen koko prosessille. Viimeiseksi tarkastelen lopputulosta eli valmista teatteriesitystä sekä sen saamaa palautetta. Päätän opinnäytetyöni pohtimalla koko prosessin onnistumista, ohjaajan ja dramaturgin roolien luonnollista limittymistä sekä omia tulevaisuuden näkymiäni.

Gathering support from rivals: the two rivals case

Two voters must choose between two alternatives. Voters vote in a fixed linear order. If there is not unanimity for any alternative, the procedure is repeated. At every stage, each voter prefers the same alternative to the other, has utilities decreasing with stages, and has an impatience degree representing when it is worth voting for the non-preferred alternative now rather than waiting for the next stage and voting for the preferred alternative. Intuition suggests that the more patient voter will get his preferred alternative. I found that in the unique solution of the sequential voting procedure obtained by backward induction, the first voter get his preferred alternative at the first stage independently from his impatience rate. Keywords: sequential voting, impatience rate, multi-stage voting, unanimity

Expertise and decision making among clinicians in investigations of alleged child sexual abuse

The purpose of the present thesis was to explore different aspects of decision making and expertise in investigations of child sexual abuse (CSA) and subsequently shed some light on the reasons for shortcomings in the investigation processes. Clinicians’ subjective attitudes as well as scientifically based knowledge concerning CSA, CSA investigation and interviewing were explored. Furthermore the clinicians’ own view on their expertise and what enhances this expertise was investigated. Also, the effects of scientific knowledge, experience and attitudes on the decision making in a case of CSA were explored. Finally, the effects of different kinds of feedback as well as experience on the ability to evaluate CSA in the light of children’s behavior and base rates were investigated. Both explorative and experimental methods were used. The purpose of Study I was to investigate whether clinicians investigating child sexual abuse (CSA) rely more on scientific knowledge or on clinical experience when evaluating their own expertise. Another goal was to check what kind of beliefs the clinicians held. The connections between these different factors were investigated. A questionnaire covering items concerning demographic data, experience, knowledge about CSA, selfevaluated expertise and beliefs about CSA was given to social workers, child psychiatrists and psychologists working with children. The results showed that the clinicians relied more on their clinical experience than on scientific knowledge when evaluating their expertise as investigators of CSA. Furthermore, social workers possessed stronger attitudes in favor of children than the other groups, while child psychiatrists had more negative attitudes towards the criminal justice system. Male participants held less strong beliefs than female participants. The findings indicate that the education of CSA investigators should focus more on theoretical knowledge and decision making processes as well as the role of beliefs In Study II school and family counseling psychologists completed a Child Sexual Abuse Attitude and Belief Scale. Four CSA related attitude and belief subscales were identified: 1. The Disclosure subscale reflecting favoring a disclosure at any cost, 2. The Pro-Child subscale reflecting unconditional belief in children's reports, 3. The Intuition subscale reflecting favoring an intuitive approach to CSA investigations, and 4. The Anti Criminal Justice System subscale reflecting negative attitudes towards the legal system. Beliefs that were erroneous according to empirical research were analyzed separately. The results suggest that some psychologists hold extreme attitudes and many erroneous beliefs related to CSA. Some misconceptions are common. Female participants tended to hold stronger attitudes than male participants. The more training in interviewing children the participants have, the more erroneous beliefs and stronger attitudes they hold. Experience did not affect attitudes and beliefs. In Study III mental health professionals’ sensitivity to suggestive interviewing in CSA cases was explored. Furthermore, the effects of attitudes and beliefs related to CSA and experience with CSA investigations on the sensitivity to suggestive influences in the interview were investigated. Also, the effect of base rate estimates of CSA on decisions was examined. A questionnaire covering items concerning demographic data, different aspects of clinical experience, self-evaluated expertise, beliefs and knowledge about CSA and a set of ambiguous material based on real trial documents concerning an alleged CSA case was given to child mental health professionals. The experiment was based on a 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 (leading questions: yes vs no) x (stereotype induction: yes vs no) x (emotional tone: pressure to respond vs no pressure to respond) x (threats and rewards: yes vs no) between-subjects factorial design, in which the suggestiveness of the methods with which the responses of the child were obtained were varied. There was an additional condition in which the material did not contain any interview transcripts. The results showed that clinicians are sensitive only to the presence of leading questions but not to the presence of other suggestive techniques. Furthermore, the clinicians were not sensitive to the possibility that suggestive techniques could have been used when no interview transcripts had been included in the trial material. Experience had an effect on the sensitivity of the clinicians only regarding leading questions. Strong beliefs related to CSA lessened the sensitivity to leading questions. Those showing strong beliefs on the belief scales used in this study were even more prone to prosecute than other participants when other suggestive influences than leading questions were present. Controversy exists regarding effects of experience and feedback on clinical decision making. In Study IV the impact of the number of handled cases and of feedback on the decisions in cases of alleged CSA was investigated. One-hundred vignettes describing cases of suspected CSA were given to students with no experience with investigating CSA. The vignettes were based on statistical data about symptoms and prevalence of CSA. According to the theoretical likelihood of CSA the children described were categorized as abused or not abused. The participants were asked to decide whether abuse had occurred. They were divided into 4 groups: one received feedback on whether their decision was right or wrong, one received information about cognitive processes involved in decision making, one received both, and one did not receive feedback at all. The results showed that participants who received feedback on their performance made more correct positive decisions and participants who got information about decision making processes made more correct negative decisions. Feedback and information combined decreased the number of correct positive decisions but increased the number of correct negative decisions. The number of read cases had in itself a positive effect on correct positive decision.

Numbers and sets

In this paper I discuss the intuition behind Frege's and Russell's definitions of numbers as sets, as well as Benacerraf's criticism of it. I argue that Benacerraf's argument is not as strong as some philosophers tend to think. Moreover, I examine an alternative to the Fregean-Russellian definition of numbers proposed by Maddy, and point out some problems faced by it.

BRUNO BAUCH AND THE COMPREHENSIBILITY OF NATURE

ABSTRACT The aim of this paper is to discuss how Bruno Bauch deals with the problem of the coordination between empirical concepts and spatiotemporal objects. We shall argue that Bauch reformulates the Kantian distinction between concepts and intuitions by means of a philosophical consideration of differential calculus and that he thereby explains the possibility of such coordination, avoiding certain difficulties of the Kantian doctrine.

HILBERT BETWEEN THE FORMAL AND THE INFORMAL SIDE OF MATHEMATICS

Abstract: In this article we analyze the key concept of Hilbert's axiomatic method, namely that of axiom. We will find two different concepts: the first one from the period of Hilbert's foundation of geometry and the second one at the time of the development of his proof theory. Both conceptions are linked to two different notions of intuition and show how Hilbert's ideas are far from a purely formalist conception of mathematics. The principal thesis of this article is that one of the main problems that Hilbert encountered in his foundational studies consisted in securing a link between formalization and intuition. We will also analyze a related problem, that we will call "Frege's Problem", form the time of the foundation of geometry and investigate the role of the Axiom of Completeness in its solution.

Tunneäly johtajan päätöksenteon työkalupakissa

Organisaatiot kohtaavat jatkuvasti kasvavia tehokkuusvaatimuksia, mutta monen nykypäivän organisaation voidaan sanoa kuluttaneen perinteiset tuotannon ja toiminnan tehostamisen keinot loppuun. Sosiaalinen pääoma on organisaatioiden viimeisiä käyttämättömiä voimavaroja tehokkuusvaatimuksiin pääsemiseksi. Tämän inhimillisen pääoman hyödyntämiseksi tarvitaan tunneälyä. Tunneälyn on osoitettu oleva merkitsevä tekijä onnistuneessa johtamisessa. Olennaisen osan johtajan työstä muodostaa päätöksenteko. Tunneälyn osuutta päätöksenteossa on kuitenkin tieteellisesti tutkittu hyvin vähän. Tämä tutkimus tarkastelee tunneälyä johtajan päätöksenteossa. Tutkimusongelmana on miten tunneäly on mukana johtajan päätöksenteossa? Ongelmaa lähestytään kahden alakysymyksen avulla, jotka ovat mitkä ovat tunneälyn keskeiset käsitemallit ja miten johtaja toimii päätöksentekotilanteessa. Tutkimus on toteutettu kvalitatiivisena tapaus-tutkimuksena, jonka metodina on ollut teemahaastattelut. Tutkimuksen haastateltavat ovat teollisuuden ja logistiikan alan toimitus- ja yksikönjohtajia. Tutkimuksen aihetta lähestytään johtajien subjektiivisten näkökantojen kautta. Tutkimuksen tavoitteena oli selvittää, miten tunneäly on osana heidän päätöksentekoprosessiaan. Tunneälyllä tarkoitetaan yksilön kykyä tunnistaa ja tulkita omia ja muiden tunteita ja käyttää tätä tietoa hyväksi omassa ajattelussa ja toiminnassa, sekä vuorovaikutuksessa muiden kanssa. Tutkimuksen mukaan johtajan päätöksenteko on kokonaisvaltaista, jatkuvaa ja interaktiivista. Päätökset voidaan erotella helppoihin, nopeasti tehtäviin rutiininomaisiin ratkaisuihin ja monimutkaisiin, kompleksisempiin ongelmiin, jotka vaativat enemmän resursseja niiden ratkaisemiseen. Haastatteluiden mukaan tunteet ovat mukana päätöksenteossa, ja ne voivat joko helpottaa päätöksentekoa tai saavan päätöksentekijän analysoimaan vaihtoehtoja tarkemmin. Päätöksiä ei kuitenkaan yleensä tehdä pelkän tunteen perusteella. Haastatteluissa korostuivat intuition ja kokemuksen hyödyntäminen päätöksenteossa. Lisäksi esiin nousivat päätöksentekijän itsetuntemus eli realistinen kuva omista vahvoista ja heikoista alueistaan päätöksenteon suhteen, terve itseluottamus tehdä päätöksiä myös epävarmoissa tilanteissa, itsehillintä sekä itsekuri tehdä vaikeitakin päätöksiä. Päätöksentekijä tarvitsee myös sosiaalisia taitoja, joista esiin nousivat erityisesti tunneilmapiirien tunnustelu ja oman käytöksen säätely sekä empatia. Haastatteluissa korostui myös optimistinen näkökulma päätöksentekoon ja tärkeänä pidettiin muutosvalmiutta. Tämän tutkimuksen perusteella vaikuttaisi siltä, että tunneälyn avulla päätöksentekijät voisivat paremmin hyödyntää tunteitaan osana päätöksentekoa.

Microenterprise success and failure factors

The purpose of this study is to identify factors contributory to success or failure of a microenterprise. Microenterprise is an enterprise with less than10 employees. About 99 % of all Finnish enterprises fall in this category. Earlier studies do not provide a comprehensive view on microenterprise success and failure factors. The theoretical part discusses the definition of success and failure, previous research and results already established about the topic and categories of business environment. The empirical part is founded on quantitative survey results from 204 Finnish microenterprises. The questions of the survey were based on previous surveys, literature and intuition. Both success and failure factors were enquired. Summary of the results was made and the results were compared among successful and unsuccessful enterprises. In open-end questions, the most important factors mentioned to affect enterprise performance positively were "Employees", "Customers" and "Skills, knowledge, education and experience." The most important factors affecting enterprise performance negatively were "Economical situation", "Employees availability and attitudes" as well as "Political decisions and passed laws". In Likert-scale set of questions, the most significant factors from the point of view of enterprise performance were "Product and / or service good quality", "Good reputation of the company" and "Staff's strong skills". The least significant factors were "Effect of marketing and promotion", "Conflicts" and "Differences of points of views of different generations". By Likert-scale set of questions, it was also tested which operations the enterprises perform, and according to the results, successful enterprises found "Performing a market research", "Use of distribution channel in sales" and "Expanding to new markets" less important than unsuccessful enterprises. The tests proved that the age of the enterprise correlates with the level of success of the enterprise: The younger the enterprise, the more successful it is. In addition, the results show that if the enterprise is family based, the less successful it is. In addition, there was also slight correlation between success and the level of growth, indicating that higher the level of growth the more successful the enterprise is. From the business environment point of view, the key finding was that internal factors affect more on the success of an enterprise than external factors, and that external factors affect more on the failure of an enterprise than internal factors.

An MD-PhD program in Brazil: students’ concepts of science and of common sense

In 1995, a pioneering MD-PhD program was initiated in Brazil for the training of medical scientists in experimental sciences at the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro. The program’s aim was achieved with respect to publication of theses in the form of papers with international visibility and also in terms of fostering the scientific careers of the graduates. The expansion of this type of program is one of the strategies for improving the preparation of biomedical researchers in Brazil. A noteworthy absence of interest in carrying out clinical research limits the ability of young Brazilian physicians to solve biomedical problems. To understand the students’ views of science, we used qualitative and quantitative triangulation methods, as well as participant observation to evaluate the students’ concepts of science and common sense. Subjective aspects were clearly less evident in their concepts of science. There was a strong concern about "methodology", "truth" and "usefulness". "Intuition", "creativity" and "curiosity" were the least mentioned thematic categories. Students recognized the value of intuition when it appeared as an explicit option but they did not refer to it spontaneously. Common sense was associated with "consensus", "opinion" and ideas that "require scientific validation". Such observations indicate that MD-PhD students share with their senior academic colleagues the same reluctance to consider common sense as a valid adjunct for the solution of scientific problems. Overcoming this difficulty may be an important step toward stimulating the interest of physicians in pursuing experimental research.

Successful new venturing process implemented by the founding entrepreneur: A case of Finnish sawmill industry

The fundamental purpose of this research is to emphasise a founding entrepreneur’s own role in the construction of a successful business story, with the focus being on the analysis of the entrepreneur’s activities. The theoretical section sheds light on the heterogeneous nature of existing performance research and, thereby, opens the way for the behavioural approach research of entrepreneurs in the field of new venture performance research. This research can be seen to be in line with the latest trends in entrepreneurship research, which question the applicability of different organisational theories in entrepreneurship research. For this reason, the founding entrepreneur has been chosen, instead of the company, to be the unit of analysis in this research in order to lighten the link in question while developing and refining new knowledge in the field of entrepreneurship. The empirical section of this research focuses on the entrepreneur’s own actions or behaviours that can be seen to be associated with the company’s success. Although some of these actions may resemble the strategic actions of a company as defined in strategic management literature, these actions taken by the entrepreneur themselves must be distinguished from the different organisational actions. Usually, an entrepreneur makes decisions rather independently, mainly on basis of their own intuition and prevailing market conditions, whereas organisational actions are very systematic, and each decision involves many different people. For this reason, an entrepreneur’s actions must be distinguished from organisational actions. In additional to different action paths, the empirical data collected for this research also offers almost unambiguous proof that the actions taken by an entrepreneur at the different stages of a company’s development do play a crucial role in the success of the companies studied in this research. In this way, it is possible to identify a significant link between the behavioural approach research of entrepreneurs and new venture performance research. Due to a lack of behavioural research into founding entrepreneurs, this research has utilised a qualitative (hermeneutic) research approach. The researcher strove to establish a particularly close connection with the entrepreneurs that were studied here and, thus, understand the actions taken at the different stages of their companies’ development as well as the motives and fundamental purposes of these actions. It would not have been possible to manage such profound data that focuses on causalities by using quantitative methods. In addition to interviews, this research used corporate histories of the companies for collecting some of the research data. These corporate histories can be considered excellent tools for the researcher to obtain a preliminary understanding and can, thereby, be seen to have laid the ground for more in-depth and diverse analyses.

Of empty thoughts and blind intuitions Kant's answer to McDowell

This paper examines the relation between intuition and concept in Kant in light of John McDowell's neo-Kantian position that intuitions are concept-laden.2 The focus is on Kant's twofold pronouncement that thoughts without content are empty and that intuitions without concepts are blind. I show that intuitions as singular representations are not instances of passive data intake but the result of synthetic unification of the given manifold of the senses by the power of the imagination under the guidance of the understanding. Against McDowell I argue that the amenability of intuitions to conceptual determination is not due some pre-existing, absolute conceptuality of the real but to the "work of the subject."3 On a more programmatic level, this paper seeks to demonstrate the limitations of a selective appropriation of Kant and the philosophical potential of a more comprehensive and thorough consideration of his work. Section 1 addresses the unique balance in Kant's philosophy between the work on particular problems and the orientation toward a systematic whole. Section 2 outlines McDowell's take on the Kantian distinction between intuition and concept in the context of the Kant readings by Sellars and Strawson. Section 3 exposes McDowell's relapse into the Myth of the Given. Section 4 proposes a reading of Kant's theoretical philosophy as an epistemology of metaphysical cognition. Section 5 details Kant's original account of sensible intuition in the Inaugural-Dissertation of 1770. Section 6 presents the transition from the manifold of the senses to the synthesis in the imagination and the unification through the categories in the Critique of pure reason (1781 and 1787). Section 7 addresses Kant's formalism in epistemology and metaphysics.

An analysis of Ibn al-'Arabi's al-Insan al-Kamil, the Perfect Individual, with a brief comparison to the thought of Sir Muhammad Iqbal

This thesis analyzes four philosophical questions surrounding Ibn al-'Arabi's concept of the al-iman al-kamil, the Perfect Individual. The Introduction provides a definition of Sufism, and it situates Ibn al-'Arabi's thought within the broader context of the philosophy of perfection. Chapter One discusses the transformative knowledge of the Perfect Individual. It analyzes the relationship between reason, revelation, and intuition, and the different roles they play within Islam, Islamic philosophy, and Sufism. Chapter Two discusses the ontological and metaphysical importance of the Perfect Individual, exploring the importance of perfection within existence by looking at the relationship the Perfect Individual has with God and the world, the eternal and non-eternal. In Chapter Three the physical manifestations of the Perfect Individual and their relationship to the Prophet Muhammad are analyzed. It explores the Perfect Individual's roles as Prophet, Saint, and Seal. The final chapter compares Ibn al-'Arabi's Perfect Individual to Sir Muhammad Iqbal's in order to analyze the different ways perfect action can be conceptualized. It analyzes the relationship between freedom and action.