Molecular tools to dissect the role of Dmrt2a and Dmrt2b in the left-right axis formation in zebrafish

Dissertação para obtenção do Grau de Mestre em Genética Molecular e Biomedicina

Territorial autonomy and self-determination conflicts: opportunity and willingness cases from Bolivia, Niger, and Thailand

The paradox of autonomy is about whether self-rule accommodates or exacerbates armed conflict. This study attempts to unpack the puzzle examining the effectiveness of territorial autonomy as a state response to self-determination conflicts throughout the world. It challenges the conflict-inducing features of autonomy arguing that territorial autonomy can mitigate armed conflict by channeling group grievances into peaceful forms of protest. Thus, this study aims at arriving at a comprehensive theory that identifies which factors are responsible for violent escalation of conflicts grounded in self-determination demands. By using the concepts of opportunity structures and willingness dimension, this study shows that conflict escalation only takes place when minorities with greater bargaining power vis-à-vis the center, in contexts of high levels of economic inequality within dyad, are mobilized around autonomy and separatist demands.

The Rise of The Swiss Tax Haven in the Interwar Period: An International Comparison

The history of tax havens during the decades before World War II is still little known. To date, the studies that have focused on the 1920s and 1930s have presented either a very general perspective on the development of tax havens or a narrow national point of view. Based on unpublished historical archives of five countries (Switzerland, Great Britain, Belgium, France, Germany), this paper offers therefore a new comparative appraisal of international tax competition during this period in order to answer the following question: What was the specificity of the Swiss case - already considered a quintessential tax haven at the time - in comparison to other banking centres? The findings of this research study are twofold. First, the 1920s and 1930s appear as something of a golden age of opportunity for avoiding taxation through the relocation of assets. Most of the financial centres granted consistent tax benefits for imported capital, while the limited degree of international cooperation and the usual guarantee of banking secrecy in European countries prevented the taxation of exported assets. Second, within this general environment, the fiscal strategies of a tax haven like Switzerland differed from those of a great financial power like Great Britain. Whereas the Swiss administration readily placed itself at the service of the banking community, British policy was more balanced between the contradictory interests of the Board of Inland Revenue, the Treasury, and the English business circles.

The Rise of The Swiss Tax Haven in the Interwar Period: An International Comparison

The history of tax havens is still little known for the decades before World War II. Up to now the studies that have focused on the 1920s and 30s have presented either a very general perspective on the development of tax havens or a narrow national point of view. Based on unpublished historical archives of four countries, this paper offers therefore a new comparative look on international tax competition during this period in order to answer the following question: was the Swiss case - already considered as a quintessential tax haven at the time - specific in comparison to other banking centres? This research has two results. On the one hand, the 1920s and 30s appear as something of a golden age of opportunity for avoiding taxation through the relocation of assets. Actually, most of the financial centres granted consistent tax benefits for imported capital, while the extremely limited degree of international cooperation and the usual guarantee of banking secrecy in European countries prevented the taxation of exported assets. On the other hand, within this general balance sheet, the fiscal strategies of a tax haven like Switzerland differed from those of a great financial power like Great Britain. Whereas the Swiss administration readily placed itself at the service of the bankers, the British policy was more balanced between the contradictory interests of the Board of Inland Revenue, the Treasury and the English business circles.

The Strategic value of European renewable energy promotion policy

Encara falta per fer possible una transformació estratègica d'Europa del sistema d'energia, però el que és de la mateixa importància com a objectius a llarg termini de la FER i Reduccions de GEH són vinculants i forts objectius d'eficiència energètica, no només per 2020, però també per al 2030, 2040 i 2050, com aquesta força ajudaria a fixar l'augment de les energies renovables en el total d'energia consum i per reduir el total Emissions de GEH d'Europa en general, i les del sector de l'energia en particular, encara sent un dels majors emissors de gasos d'efecte hivernacle de tots els sectors. La refosa Directiva, prevista per 2011/12 ha de ser un bones finestres d'oportunitat per finalment establir objectius vinculants d'eficiència energètica, l'únic pilar que encara falta en la força energia interdependents i estratègia sobre el clima de la UE, basat en la reducció de gasos d'efecte hivernacle i i l'eficiència energètica.

Multi-sample analysis of moment-structures: Asymptotic validity of inferences based on second-order moments

In moment structure analysis with nonnormal data, asymptotic valid inferences require the computation of a consistent (under general distributional assumptions) estimate of the matrix $\Gamma$ of asymptotic variances of sample second--order moments. Such a consistent estimate involves the fourth--order sample moments of the data. In practice, the use of fourth--order moments leads to computational burden and lack of robustness against small samples. In this paper we show that, under certain assumptions, correct asymptotic inferences can be attained when $\Gamma$ is replaced by a matrix $\Omega$ that involves only the second--order moments of the data. The present paper extends to the context of multi--sample analysis of second--order moment structures, results derived in the context of (simple--sample) covariance structure analysis (Satorra and Bentler, 1990). The results apply to a variety of estimation methods and general type of statistics. An example involving a test of equality of means under covariance restrictions illustrates theoretical aspects of the paper.

Radial measures of public services deficit for regional allocation of public funds

The goal of this paper is to present an optimal resource allocation model for the regional allocation of public service inputs. Theproposed solution leads to maximise the relative public service availability in regions located below the best availability frontier, subject to exogenous budget restrictions and equality ofaccess for equal need criteria (equity-based notion of regional needs). The construction of non-parametric deficit indicators is proposed for public service availability by a novel application of Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) models, whose results offer advantages for the evaluation and improvement of decentralised public resource allocation systems. The method introduced in this paper has relevance as a resource allocation guide for the majority of services centrally funded by the public sector in a given country, such as health care, basic and higher education, citizen safety, justice, transportation, environmental protection, leisure, culture, housing and city planning, etc.

Calidad de vida y percepción de la desigualdad de la mujer en la ciudad de Girona = Quality of life and inequality perception’s of women in the city of Girona

La igualdad de oportunidades para las mujeres, como factor clave para avanzar en la consecución de calidad de vida preocupa hoy en día a la sociedad en general y alas instituciones en particular. Antes de la elaboración de programas de intervención social es necesario conocer las percepciones de las propias mujeres acerca de sus problemas y de sus necesidades. Siguiendo esta línea de pensamiento presentamos un trabajo empírico en el que analizamos las percepciones de las mujeres de la ciudad de Girona, centrándonos en dos aspectos de manera particular: la percepción de calidad de vida proporcionada por su ciudad y la percepción de desigualdad de oportunidades y/o de discriminación. Los principales resultados, obtenidos a partir de las respuestas a un cuestionario auto-administrado, y proporcionados por una muestra de mujeres seleccionadas aleatoriamente a partir de un muestreo estratificado geográficamente, indican que en general están satisfechas con su ciudad aunque detectamos las principales causas de insatisfacción. Por otra parte, tas principales fuentes de desigualdad se refieren al mundo laboral (menos salario por el mismo trabajo, dificultades de encontrar trabajo si tienen hijos o si son ya mayores), y en la actitud general de la sociedad en el sentido de tener que cumplir el papel que tradicionalmente se les ha asignado

The Significance of Business Exit for Future Entrepreneurial Activity

Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to analyse the impact of business exits on future dimensions of entrepreneurial activity at the macroeconomic level. Design/methodology/approach: This research uses the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) data for 41 countries and the Generalized Method of Moments (GMM) to carry out the analysis. The paper differentiates the effect of the two components of total entrepreneurial activity, and the two motivations for it – opportunity and necessity entrepreneurship. Findings: The results presented here show a positive and significant effect of the coefficient associated with exits in all models. This means that the levels of entrepreneurial activity exceed business exits. The robustness of the models are tested, including other variables such as the fear of failure, the Gross Domestic Product, role models, entrepreneurial skills and the unemployment variables. The main hypothesis which stated that at national level business exits imply greater rates of opportunity-driven entrepreneurship is corroborated. Originality/value: One would expect that unemployment rates would imply higher levels of necessity entrepreneurship. However, results show that unemployment rates do in fact favour opportunity entrepreneurship levels. This could be due to those government policies that are aimed at promoting entrepreneurship through the capitalization of unemployment to be totally invested in a new start-up. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first panel data study to link previous exit rates to future dimensions of entrepreneurial activity. Keywords: Entrepreneurship, business exits, social values, industrial organization Paper type: Research paper

Development of cardiovascular magnetic resonance imaging techniques for improved characterization of atherosclerotic disease

Atherosclerosis is a chronic cardiovascular disease that involves the thicken¬ing of the artery walls as well as the formation of plaques (lesions) causing the narrowing of the lumens, in vessels such as the aorta, the coronary and the carotid arteries. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a promising modality for the assessment of atherosclerosis, as it is a non-invasive and patient-friendly procedure that does not use ionizing radiation. MRI offers high soft tissue con¬trast already without the need of intravenous contrast media; while modifica¬tion of the MR pulse sequences allows for further adjustment of the contrast for specific diagnostic needs. As such, MRI can create angiographic images of the vessel lumens to assess stenoses at the late stage of the disease, as well as blood flow-suppressed images for the early investigation of the vessel wall and the characterization of the atherosclerotic plaques. However, despite the great technical progress that occurred over the past two decades, MRI is intrinsically a low sensitive technique and some limitations still exist in terms of accuracy and performance. A major challenge for coronary artery imaging is respiratory motion. State- of-the-art diaphragmatic navigators rely on an indirect measure of motion, per¬form a ID correction, and have long and unpredictable scan time. In response, self-navigation (SM) strategies have recently been introduced that offer 100% scan efficiency and increased ease of use. SN detects respiratory motion di¬rectly from the image data obtained at the level of the heart, and retrospectively corrects the same data before final image reconstruction. Thus, SN holds po-tential for multi-dimensional motion compensation. To this regard, this thesis presents novel SN methods that estimate 2D and 3D motion parameters from aliased sub-images that are obtained from the same raw data composing the final image. Combination of all corrected sub-images produces a final image with reduced motion artifacts for the visualization of the coronaries. The first study (section 2.2, 2D Self-Navigation with Compressed Sensing) consists of a method for 2D translational motion compensation. Here, the use of com- pressed sensing (CS) reconstruction is proposed and investigated to support motion detection by reducing aliasing artifacts. In healthy human subjects, CS demonstrated an improvement in motion detection accuracy with simula¬tions on in vivo data, while improved coronary artery visualization was demon¬strated on in vivo free-breathing acquisitions. However, the motion of the heart induced by respiration has been shown to occur in three dimensions and to be more complex than a simple translation. Therefore, the second study (section 2.3,3D Self-Navigation) consists of a method for 3D affine motion correction rather than 2D only. Here, different techniques were adopted to reduce background signal contribution in respiratory motion tracking, as this can be adversely affected by the static tissue that surrounds the heart. The proposed method demonstrated to improve conspicuity and vi¬sualization of coronary arteries in healthy and cardiovascular disease patient cohorts in comparison to a conventional ID SN method. In the third study (section 2.4, 3D Self-Navigation with Compressed Sensing), the same tracking methods were used to obtain sub-images sorted according to the respiratory position. Then, instead of motion correction, a compressed sensing reconstruction was performed on all sorted sub-image data. This process ex¬ploits the consistency of the sorted data to reduce aliasing artifacts such that the sub-image corresponding to the end-expiratory phase can directly be used to visualize the coronaries. In a healthy volunteer cohort, this strategy improved conspicuity and visualization of the coronary arteries when compared to a con¬ventional ID SN method. For the visualization of the vessel wall and atherosclerotic plaques, the state- of-the-art dual inversion recovery (DIR) technique is able to suppress the signal coming from flowing blood and provide positive wall-lumen contrast. How¬ever, optimal contrast may be difficult to obtain and is subject to RR variability. Furthermore, DIR imaging is time-inefficient and multislice acquisitions may lead to prolonged scanning times. In response and as a fourth study of this thesis (chapter 3, Vessel Wall MRI of the Carotid Arteries), a phase-sensitive DIR method has been implemented and tested in the carotid arteries of a healthy volunteer cohort. By exploiting the phase information of images acquired after DIR, the proposed phase-sensitive method enhances wall-lumen contrast while widens the window of opportunity for image acquisition. As a result, a 3-fold increase in volumetric coverage is obtained at no extra cost in scanning time, while image quality is improved. In conclusion, this thesis presented novel methods to address some of the main challenges for MRI of atherosclerosis: the suppression of motion and flow artifacts for improved visualization of vessel lumens, walls and plaques. Such methods showed to significantly improve image quality in human healthy sub¬jects, as well as scan efficiency and ease-of-use of MRI. Extensive validation is now warranted in patient populations to ascertain their diagnostic perfor¬mance. Eventually, these methods may bring the use of atherosclerosis MRI closer to the clinical practice. Résumé L'athérosclérose est une maladie cardiovasculaire chronique qui implique le épaississement de la paroi des artères, ainsi que la formation de plaques (lé¬sions) provoquant le rétrécissement des lumières, dans des vaisseaux tels que l'aorte, les coronaires et les artères carotides. L'imagerie par résonance magné¬tique (IRM) est une modalité prometteuse pour l'évaluation de l'athérosclérose, car il s'agit d'une procédure non-invasive et conviviale pour les patients, qui n'utilise pas des rayonnements ionisants. L'IRM offre un contraste des tissus mous très élevé sans avoir besoin de médias de contraste intraveineux, tan¬dis que la modification des séquences d'impulsions de RM permet en outre le réglage du contraste pour des besoins diagnostiques spécifiques. À ce titre, l'IRM peut créer des images angiographiques des lumières des vaisseaux pour évaluer les sténoses à la fin du stade de la maladie, ainsi que des images avec suppression du flux sanguin pour une première enquête des parois des vais¬seaux et une caractérisation des plaques d'athérosclérose. Cependant, malgré les grands progrès techniques qui ont eu lieu au cours des deux dernières dé¬cennies, l'IRM est une technique peu sensible et certaines limitations existent encore en termes de précision et de performance. Un des principaux défis pour l'imagerie de l'artère coronaire est le mou¬vement respiratoire. Les navigateurs diaphragmatiques de pointe comptent sur une mesure indirecte de mouvement, effectuent une correction 1D, et ont un temps d'acquisition long et imprévisible. En réponse, les stratégies d'auto- navigation (self-navigation: SN) ont été introduites récemment et offrent 100% d'efficacité d'acquisition et une meilleure facilité d'utilisation. Les SN détectent le mouvement respiratoire directement à partir des données brutes de l'image obtenue au niveau du coeur, et rétrospectivement corrigent ces mêmes données avant la reconstruction finale de l'image. Ainsi, les SN détiennent un poten¬tiel pour une compensation multidimensionnelle du mouvement. A cet égard, cette thèse présente de nouvelles méthodes SN qui estiment les paramètres de mouvement 2D et 3D à partir de sous-images qui sont obtenues à partir des mêmes données brutes qui composent l'image finale. La combinaison de toutes les sous-images corrigées produit une image finale pour la visualisation des coronaires ou les artefacts du mouvement sont réduits. La première étude (section 2.2,2D Self-Navigation with Compressed Sensing) traite d'une méthode pour une compensation 2D de mouvement de translation. Ici, on étudie l'utilisation de la reconstruction d'acquisition comprimée (compressed sensing: CS) pour soutenir la détection de mouvement en réduisant les artefacts de sous-échantillonnage. Chez des sujets humains sains, CS a démontré une amélioration de la précision de la détection de mouvement avec des simula¬tions sur des données in vivo, tandis que la visualisation de l'artère coronaire sur des acquisitions de respiration libre in vivo a aussi été améliorée. Pourtant, le mouvement du coeur induite par la respiration se produit en trois dimensions et il est plus complexe qu'un simple déplacement. Par conséquent, la deuxième étude (section 2.3, 3D Self-Navigation) traite d'une méthode de cor¬rection du mouvement 3D plutôt que 2D uniquement. Ici, différentes tech¬niques ont été adoptées pour réduire la contribution du signal du fond dans le suivi de mouvement respiratoire, qui peut être influencé négativement par le tissu statique qui entoure le coeur. La méthode proposée a démontré une amélioration, par rapport à la procédure classique SN de correction 1D, de la visualisation des artères coronaires dans le groupe de sujets sains et des pa¬tients avec maladies cardio-vasculaires. Dans la troisième étude (section 2.4,3D Self-Navigation with Compressed Sensing), les mêmes méthodes de suivi ont été utilisées pour obtenir des sous-images triées selon la position respiratoire. Au lieu de la correction du mouvement, une reconstruction de CS a été réalisée sur toutes les sous-images triées. Cette procédure exploite la cohérence des données pour réduire les artefacts de sous- échantillonnage de telle sorte que la sous-image correspondant à la phase de fin d'expiration peut directement être utilisée pour visualiser les coronaires. Dans un échantillon de volontaires en bonne santé, cette stratégie a amélioré la netteté et la visualisation des artères coronaires par rapport à une méthode classique SN ID. Pour la visualisation des parois des vaisseaux et de plaques d'athérosclérose, la technique de pointe avec double récupération d'inversion (DIR) est capa¬ble de supprimer le signal provenant du sang et de fournir un contraste posi¬tif entre la paroi et la lumière. Pourtant, il est difficile d'obtenir un contraste optimal car cela est soumis à la variabilité du rythme cardiaque. Par ailleurs, l'imagerie DIR est inefficace du point de vue du temps et les acquisitions "mul- tislice" peuvent conduire à des temps de scan prolongés. En réponse à ce prob¬lème et comme quatrième étude de cette thèse (chapitre 3, Vessel Wall MRI of the Carotid Arteries), une méthode de DIR phase-sensitive a été implémenté et testé

Social justice in education : how the function of selection in educational institutions predicts support for (non)egalitarian assessment practices

Educational institutions are considered a keystone for the establishment of a meritocratic society. They supposedly serve two functions: an educational function that promotes learning for all, and a selection function that sorts individuals into different programs, and ultimately social positions, based on individual merit. We study how the function of selection relates to support for assessment practices known to harm vs. benefit lower status students, through the perceived justice principles underlying these practices. We study two assessment practices: normative assessment-focused on ranking and social comparison, known to hinder the success of lower status students-and formative assessment-focused on learning and improvement, known to benefit lower status students. Normative assessment is usually perceived as relying on an equity principle, with rewards being allocated based on merit and should thus appear as positively associated with the function of selection. Formative assessment is usually perceived as relying on corrective justice that aims to ensure equality of outcomes by considering students' needs, which makes it less suitable for the function of selection. A questionnaire measuring these constructs was administered to university students. Results showed that believing that education is intended to select the best students positively predicts support for normative assessment, through increased perception of its reliance on equity, and negatively predicts support for formative assessment, through reduced perception of its ability to establish corrective justice. This study suggests that the belief in the function of selection as inherent to educational institutions can contribute to the reproduction of social inequalities by preventing change from assessment practices known to disadvantage lowerstatus student, namely normative assessment, to more favorable practices, namely formative assessment, and by promoting matching beliefs in justice principles.

Impact of Sleep and Circadian Disruption on Energy Balance and Diabetes: A Summary of Workshop Discussions.

ABSTRACT: A workshop was held at the National Institute for Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases with a focus on the impact of sleep and circadian disruption on energy balance and diabetes. The workshop identified a number of key principles for research in this area and a number of specific opportunities. Studies in this area would be facilitated by active collaboration between investigators in sleep/circadian research and investigators in metabolism/diabetes. There is a need to translate the elegant findings from basic research into improving the metabolic health of the American public. There is also a need for investigators studying the impact of sleep/circadian disruption in humans to move beyond measurements of insulin and glucose and conduct more in-depth phenotyping. There is also a need for the assessments of sleep and circadian rhythms as well as assessments for sleep-disordered breathing to be incorporated into all ongoing cohort studies related to diabetes risk. Studies in humans need to complement the elegant short-term laboratory-based human studies of simulated short sleep and shift work etc. with studies in subjects in the general population with these disorders. It is conceivable that chronic adaptations occur, and if so, the mechanisms by which they occur needs to be identified and understood. Particular areas of opportunity that are ready for translation are studies to address whether CPAP treatment of patients with pre-diabetes and obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) prevents or delays the onset of diabetes and whether temporal restricted feeding has the same impact on obesity rates in humans as it does in mice.

Empirical welfare analysis: when preferences matter

Fleurbaey and Maniquet have proposed the criteria of conditional equality and of egalitarian equivalence to assess the equity among individuals in an ordinal setting. Empirical applications are rare and only partially consistent with their framework. We propose a new empirical approach that relies on individual preferences, is consistent with the ordinal criteria and enables to compare them with the cardinal criteria. We estimate a utility function that incorporates individual heterogeneous preferences, obtain ordinal measures of well-being and apply conditional equality and egalitarian equivalence. We then propose two cardinal measures of well-being, that are comparable with the ordinal model, to compute Roemer’s and Van de gaer’s criteria. Finally we compare the characteristics of the worst-off displayed by each criterion. We apply this model to a sample of US micro data and obtain that about 18% of the worst-off are not common to all criteria.

Innovations of ageing and societal transition : Dynamics of change of the socio-technical regime of ageing

The purpose of this dissertation is to examine the dynamics of the socio-technical system in the field of ageing. The study stems from the notion that the ageing of the population as a powerful megatrend has wide societal effects, and is not just a matter for the social and health sector. The central topic in the study is change: not only the age structures and structures of society are changing, but also at the same time there is constant development, for instance, in technologies, infrastructures and cultural perceptions. The changing concept of innovation has widened the understanding of innovations related to ageing from medical and assistive technological innovations to service and social innovations, as well as systemic innovations at different levels, which means the intertwined and co-evolutionary change in technologies, structures, services and thinking models. By the same token, the perceptions of older people and old age are becoming more multi-faceted: old age is no longer equated to illnesses and decline, but visions of active ageing and a third age have emerged, which are framed by choices, opportunities, resources and consumption in later life. The research task in this study is to open up the processes and mechanisms of change in the field of ageing, which are studied as a complex, multi-level and interrelated socio-technical system. The question is about co-effective elements consisting of macro-level landscape changes, the existing socio-technical regime (the rule system, practices and structures) and bottom-up niche-innovations. Societal transitions do not account for the things inside the regime alone, or for the long-term changes in the landscape, nor for the radical innovations, but for the interplay between all these levels. The research problem is studied through five research articles, which offer micro-level case studies to macro-level phenomenon. Each of the articles focus on different aspects related to ageing and change, and utilise various datasets. The framework of this study leans on the studies of socio-technical systems and multi-level perspective on transitions mainly developed by Frank Geels. Essential factors in transition from one socio-technological regime to another are the co-evolutionary processes between landscape changes, regime level and experimental niches. Landscape level changes, like the ageing of the population, destabilise the regime in the forms of coming pressures. This destabilization offers windows for opportunity to niche-innovations outside or at fringe of the regime, which, through their breakthrough, accelerate the transition process. However, the change is not easy because of various kinds of lock-ins and inertia, which tend to maintain the stability of the regime. In this dissertation, a constructionist approach of society is applied leaning mainly to the ideas of Anthony Giddens’ theory of structuration, with the dual nature of structures. The change is taking place in the interplay between actors and structures: structures shape people’s practices, but at the same time these practices constitute and reproduce social systems. Technology and other material aspects, as part of socio-technical systems, and the use of them, also take part in the structuration process. The findings of the study point out that co-evolutionary and co-effective relationships between economic, cultural, technological and institutional fields, as well as relationships between landscape changes, changes in the local and regime-level practices and rule systems, are a very complex and multi-level dynamic socio-technical phenomenon. At the landscape level of ageing, which creates the pressures and triggers to the regime change, there are three remarkable megatrends: demographic change, changes in the global economy and the development of technologies. These exert pressures to the socio-technical regime, which as a rule system is experiencing changes in the form of new markets and consumer habits, new ways of perceiving ageing, new models of organising the health care and other services and as new ways of considering innovation and innovativeness. There are also inner dynamics in the relationships between these aspects within the regime. These are interrelated and coconstructed: the prevailing perceptions of ageing and innovation, for instance, reflect the ageing policies, innovation policies, societal structures, organising models, technology and scientific discussion, and vice versa. Technology is part of the inner dynamics of the sociotechnological regime. Physical properties of the artefacts set limitations and opportunities with regard to their functions and uses. The use of and discussion about technology, contributes producing and reproducing the perceptions of old age. For societal transition, micro-level changes are also needed, in form of niche-innovations, for instance new services, organisational models or new technologies, Regimes, as stabilitystriven systems, tend to generate incremental innovations, but radically new innovations are generated in experimental niches protected from ‘normal’ market selection. The windows of opportunity for radical novelties may be opened if the circumstances are favourable for instance by tensions in the socio-technical regime affected by landscape level changes. This dissertation indicates that a change is taking place, firstly, in the dynamic interactionbetween levels, as a result of purposive action and governance to some extent. Breaking the inertia and using the window of opportunity for change and innovation offered by dynamics between levels, presupposes the actors’ special capabilities and actions such as dynamic capabilities and distance management. Secondly, the change is taking place the socio-technological negotiations inside the regime: interaction between technological and social, which is embodied in the use of technology. The use of technology includes small-level contextual scripts that also participate in forming broader societal scripts (for instance defining old age at the society level), which in their turn affect the formation of policies for innovation and ageing. Thirdly, the change is taking place by the means of active formation of the multi-actor innovation networks, where the role of distance management is crucial to facilitate the communication between actors coming from different backgrounds as well as to help the niches born outside the regime to utilise the window of opportunity offered by regime destabilisation. This dissertation has both theoretical and practical contributions. This study participates in the discussion of action-oriented view on transition by opening up of the socio-technological, coevolutionary processes of the multi-faceted phenomenon of ageing, which has lacked systematic analyses. The focus of this study, however, is not on the large-scale coordination and governance, but rather on opening up the incremental elements and structuration processes, which contribute to the transition little by little, and which can be affected to. This increases the practical importance of this dissertation, by highlighting the importance of very tiny, everyday elements in the change processes in the long run.

Yliopiston reunalla. Tutkimus suomalaisen avoimen yliopiston muotoutumisesta

Avoin yliopisto on koulutusmuoto, johon kuka tahansa voi osallistua ja jossa voi suorittaa yliopistotasoisia opintoja. Avoimen yliopiston ideassa keskeistä on koulutuksellisen tasa-arvon edistämisen tavoite. Tämän tutkimuksen tehtävänä on kuvata ja analysoida suomalaisen avoimen yliopiston muotoutumista. Tutkimuksella etsitään vastauksia kolmeen kysymykseen: 1. Millaisten vaiheiden kautta avoin yliopisto on muotoutunut? Mitä avoimen yliopiston historiassa on tapahtunut ja millaista keskustelua näistä tapahtumista on käyty? 2. Millaisia diskursseja avointa yliopistoa koskeneessa keskustelussa voidaan tunnistaa ja miten eri toimijatahot ovat näihin puhetapoihin kiinnittyneet? 3. Millaisena koulutuksellisen tasa-arvon toteuttajana avoin yliopisto näyttäytyy tutkimusaineiston valossa? Tutkimuksen aineisto koostuu erilaisista julkisista teksteistä. Aineistossa on mukana useita erilaisia tekstityyppejä: komiteanmietintöjä ja työryhmäraportteja, korkeakoululaitoksen kehittämissuunnitelmia, muita suunnitteluasiakirjoja, tutkimuksia, selvityksiä, puheenvuoroja ja esitelmiä sekä lehtikirjoituksia. Täydentävänä aineistona on lisäksi käytetty tilastoja. Tutkimusaineistoa on analysoitu diskurssianalyysillä. Keskeisenä lähtökohtana analyysissa on, että tekstien avulla tuotetaan avointa yliopistoa koskevia käsityksiä ja merkityksiä. Nämä merkitykset myös muuttuvat ajassa. Aineiston analyysin tuloksena avoimen yliopiston historiassa voidaan erottaa erilaisia vaiheita ja näiden vaiheiden välisiä taitekohtia. Ensimmäiseksi murrokseksi avoimen yliopiston historiassa voidaan paikantaa avoimen yliopiston synty, joka ajoittui 1970-luvun alkupuoliskolle. Avoin yliopisto sai vakiintuneet puitteensa vasta 1980-luvun puolivälissä, jolloin se organisoitiin osaksi yliopistojen täydennyskoulutusta. Tämä voidaan nähdä avoimen yliopiston historian toisena murroksena. Kolmas murros ajoittui 1990-luvulle, jolloin avoimen yliopiston resursointi muuttui ja nuoret tulivat sen näkyväksi opiskelijaryhmäksi. Tämä murros problematisoi avoimen yliopiston ja tutkintokoulutuksen suhteen aiemmasta poikkeavalla tavalla ja avoimen yliopiston tutkintoväylä nousi keskeiseksi keskusteluteemaksi. Tämä jännite purkautui tultaessa 2000-luvulle, ja tutkinnonuudistuksen yhteydessä avoimen yliopiston väylä sai paikkansa suhteessa kahden syklin tutkintoihin. Nyt elämme tutkinnonuudistuksen jälkeistä aikaa, jolloin avoimen yliopiston väylä vertautuu paljolti maisterikoulutuksiin. Kysymys aikuisten asemasta suhteessa tutkintokoulutukseen on kuitenkin edelleen ajankohtainen. Esillä ovat etenkin kysymykset aiemmin opitun tunnustamisesta, aikuisten ohjauksesta sekä avoimen yliopiston suhteesta työ- ja elinkeinoelämään. Keskustelussa avoimesta yliopistosta on paikannettavissa erilaisia positioita, jotka määrittävät avoimen yliopiston merkitystä ja tehtävää. Näitä positioita voidaan nimittää diskursseiksi, jotka konstituoivat avoimen yliopiston paikkaa yliopistokoulutuksen kentällä. Aineistosta on paikannettu neljä eri diskurssia: (1) akateemisia arvoja painottava yliopistollinen diskurssi, (2) osallistumisen tasa-arvoa korostava sivistyksellisen demokratian diskurssi, (3) yksilöllisiä mahdollisuuksia ja innovatiivisuutta korostava joustavuuden diskurssi sekä (4) työelämää, taloudellisuutta ja statusta korostava tehokkuuden diskurssi. Nämä diskurssit käyvät aineiston teksteissä keskinäisiä neuvotteluja ja kantavat merkityksiä suhteessa toisiinsa. Diskurssien välisiä suhteita voidaan kuvata kahden eri dimension kautta. Yhtäältä vastakkaisiksi arvoiksi asettuvat akateeminen eksklusiivisuus ja koulutuksellinen tasa-arvo. Toisena ulottuvuutena on koulutuksen arvottaminen sivistyksen versus hyödyn näkökulmasta. Avoimen yliopiston tehtävä tasa-arvon edistäjänä on eri aikoina mielletty eri tavoin. Avoimen yliopiston historiassa sen merkitystä ja tehtävää on kehystetty erilaisin puhetavoin, ja eri diskurssipositioiden vuoropuhelun kautta myös avoimen yliopiston tasa-arvotehtävästä on eri aikoina keskusteltu eri tavoin. Avoimen yliopiston alkuvaiheessa sen tehtävänä näyttäytyi sivistyksellisen demokratian turvaajana toimiminen. Kun avoimen yliopiston kurssit käynnistyivät, määrittyi toiminta selkeästi aikuisten koulutukseksi. Avoin yliopisto määrittyikin nyt aikuisten toiseksi mahdollisuudeksi hankkia koulutusta, jota vaille he olivat nuorempina jääneet. Avoimen yliopiston puitteiden lukkoonlyömisen jälkeen keskustelussa nousi vahvasti esiin toiminnan ja opetusmuotojen kehittäminen. Avoin yliopisto määrittyikin nyt aikuisten monipuoliseksi ja joustavaksi koulutusmahdollisuudeksi. Tasa-arvoisten mahdollisuuksien luominen näyttäytyi innovatiivisena, dynaamisena ja eteenpäinpyrkivänä toimintana, jossa otettiin huomioon aikuisten erilaiset tarpeet. Relander-ohjelman myötä avoimen yliopiston julkilausuttu tehtävä nimenomaan aikuisten kouluttajana kuitenkin muuttui. Avoin yliopisto näyttäytyi nyt yksilöllisiä tarpeita palvelevana mahdollisuuksien talona, jossa oli sijaa kaikille. Tärkeäksi määrittyi myös opiskelun tavoitteiden ja motiivien moninaisuus. Tutkinnon suorittamisen avoimen yliopiston opintojen kautta tuli olla realistisesti mahdollista. Viimeisimmän murroksen jälkeen avoin yliopisto määrittyy yhä selvemmin työelämän sekä alueellisten tarpeiden kautta. Avoin yliopisto näyttäytyy joustavana ja erilaisia tarpeita palvelevana opiskelufoorumina. Avoin yliopisto palvelee paitsi yksilöiden, myös työelämän ja yritysten tarpeita sekä on osaltaan turvaamassa alueiden kilpailukykyä ja elinvoimaisuutta. Tässä tutkimuksessa tarkastellaan avointa yliopistoa, sen historiaa ja siitä käytyä keskustelua erityisesti tasa-arvon näkökulmasta. Yhtenä keskeisenä tuloksena on, että avoimen yliopiston paikka on ollut aina jollakin tavalla marginaalissa. Tätä ilmentää mm. yliopistollisuuden ja tasa-arvon välinen jännite, jonka ympärille avointa yliopistoa koskeva keskustelu paljolti on järjestynyt. Ylipäätään aikuisten asemaa yliopistossa määrittää tietty epämukavuus ja täyden legitimiteetin puute erityisesti suhteessa tutkintokoulutukseen. Aikuisten koulutuksesta puhutaan yliopiston yhtenä perustehtävänä ja retorisesti voidaan todeta tämän tehtävän tärkeys. Aikuinen opiskelija aiempine osaamisineen ja osaamistarpeineen positioituu kuitenkin yliopistokoulutuksen ja työelämän väliselle rajapinnalle. Aikuisen paikka määrittyykin yliopiston ytimeen nähden selvästi marginaaliin.