Cognitive and physiological effects of an acute physical activity intervention in elementary school children

The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of an acute physical activity intervention that included cognitive engagement on executive functions and on cortisol level in young elementary school children. Half of the 104 participating children (6–8 years old) attended a 20-min sport sequence, which included cognitively engaging and playful forms of physical activity. The other half was assigned to a resting control condition. Individual differences in children's updating, inhibition, and shifting performance as well as salivary cortisol were assessed before (pre-test), immediately after (post-test), and 40 min after (follow-up) the intervention or control condition, respectively. Results revealed a significantly stronger improvement in inhibition in the experimental group compared to the control group, while it appeared that acute physical activity had no specific effect on updating and shifting. The intervention effect on inhibition leveled out 40 min after physical activity. Salivary cortisol increased significantly more in the experimental compared to the control group between post-test and follow-up and results support partly the assumed inverted U-shaped relationship between cortisol level and cognitive performance. In conclusion, results indicate that acute physical activity that includes cognitive engagement may have immediate positive effects on inhibition, but not necessarily on updating and shifting in elementary school children. This positive effect may partly be explained through cortisol elevation after acute physical activity.

Prospective memory, executive functions, and metacognition are already differentiated in young elementary school children: Evidence from latent factor modelling

This study investigated the empirical differentiation of prospective memory, executive functions, and metacognition and their structural relationships in 119 elementary school children (M = 95 months, SD = 4.8 months). These cognitive abilities share many characteristics on the theoretical level and are all highly relevant in many everyday contexts when intentions must be executed. Nevertheless, their empirical relationships have not been examined on the latent level, although an empirical approach would contribute to our knowledge concerning the differentiation of cognitive abilities during childhood. We administered a computerized event-based prospective memory task, three executive function tasks (updating, inhibition, shifting), and a metacognitive control task in the context of spelling. Confirmatory factor analysis revealed that the three cognitive abilities are already empirically differentiable in young elementary school children. At the same time, prospective memory and executive functions were found to be strongly related, and there was also a close link between prospective memory and metacognitive control. Furthermore, executive functions and metacognitive control were marginally significantly related. The findings are discussed within a framework of developmental differentiation and conceptual similarities and differences.

Prospective Memory, Retrospective Memory, Executive Functions, and Metacognition: How they are linked longitudinally in young elementary school children

Succeeding in everyday activities often requires executive functioning (EF), metacognitive abilities (MC) and memory skills such as prospective memory (PM) and retrospective memory (RM). These cognitive abilities seem to gradually develop in childhood, possibly influencing each other during development. From a theoretical point of view, it is likely that they are closely interrelated, especially in children. Their empirical relation, however, is less clear. A model that links these cognitive abilities can help to better understand the relation between PM and RM and other cognitive processes. In this project we studied the longitudinal development of PM, RM, EF, and MC in 7-8 year old elementary school children across half a year. 119 second graders (MT1 = 95 months, SDT1, = 4.8 months) completed the same PM, RM, EF and MC tasks twice with a time-lag of 7 months. The developmental progression was analysed using paired t-tests, the longitudinal relationships were analysed using confirmatory factor analysis and all fit indices are in accordance with Hu and Bentler (1998). In general, performance improved significantly (ps < .001) and effect sizes ranged from .45 to .62 (Cohen’s d). CFA revealed a good model fit, c2(227, 119) = 242.56, p = .23, TLI = .973, CFI = .979, RMSEA = .024. At T1, significant cross-sectional links were found between PM T1 and RM T1, between PM T1 and EF T1, and between EF T1 and MC T1. Moreover, significant longitudinal links were found between EFT1 and PMT2 and between EFT1 and MCT2; EF T1 and RM T2 were marginally linked. Results underline previous findings showing that PM, RM, EF, and MC develop significantly during childhood, even within this short time period. Results also indicate that these cognitive abilities are linked not only cross-sectionally, but longitudinally. Most relevant, however, is the predictive role of EF for both metacognition and memory.

Longitudinal relationships between prospective memory, executive functions, and metacognition in young elementary school children

Prospective Memory (PM), executive functions (EF) and metacognition (MC) are relevant cognitive abilities for everyday functioning. They all seem to develop gradually in childhood and appear to be theoretically closely related; however, their empirical links remain unclear, especially in children. As a recent study revealed significant cross-sectional links between PM and EF, and a weaker but close link between PM and MC in 2nd graders (Spiess, Meier, & Roebers, submitted), this study focused on their short-term relationships and on their development. 119 children (MT1 =95 months, SDT1, = 4.8 months) completed the same tasks (one PM, three EF, one MC task) twice with a time-lag of 7 months. T-tests showed significant improvements in all tasks, except in the updating task. Different structural equation models were contrasted (AMOS); the best fitting model revealed that PMT2 was similarly predicted by PMT1 (r = .33) and EFT1 (r = .34). Additionally, EFT1 predicted MCT2 (r = .44), chi2(118, 119) = 128.91, p = .23, TLI = .968, CFI = .978, RMSEA = .028. Results show that PM, EF, and MC develop during childhood and also demonstrate that they are linked not only cross-sectionally, but longitudinally. Findings are discussed in a broader developmental framework.

The Social Geography of Education: Neighborhood, Class Composition, and the Educational Achievement of Elementary School Students in Zurich, Switzerland

Despite an impressive amount of research and policy intervention no robust pattern of neighborhood effects on educational attainment has previously been identified. Adequate theoretical modeling and the sensitivity of the results to the method of the study are the major challenges in this area of research. This paper elaborates the social mechanisms of neighborhood effects and applies various methodological approaches to test them. Using data from Switzerland, the research reported here has detected heterogeneous effects of neighborhood on elementary school students’ educational achievement in Zurich. Although modest in comparison with the effects of classroom composition, these effects appear to be mediated primarily through social integration into a local peer network and are differentiated according to students’ gender and their social origin.

The Effects of a Physical Activity Intervention on the way Elementary School Girls Play

The rates of childhood and adolescent obesity in the United States have been increasing steadily. American youth continue to eat more (increase energy intake) and reduce physical activity (decrease energy expenditure) resulting in increased body weight and body fatness. One way to help reduce body weight in children is to increase physical activity. The purpose of this study was to determine if an age appropriate before-school physical activity intervention would be successful in increasing energy expenditure, intensity of activity, and behavioral approaches in overweight girls. The subjects were recruited from Parker Memorial School in Tolland, Connecticut, and two testing periods occurred over an eight week period. Video recordings of each physical activity session were analyzed to determine energy expenditure, exercise intensity, and behaviors during exercise. Data was evaluated for normal distribution, and paired t-tests were used to determine statistical significance. This study showed that the age appropriate before school physical activity intervention was able to increase energy expenditure and exercise intensity and have a positive effect on behavioral approaches in overweight girls.

Team: Bee Me. A formulative evaluation of a negative eating attitudes and behaviors primary prevention curriculum targeted at 5 th grade elementary school girls

Objective. To evaluate a school-based intervention aimed at the primary prevention of negative eating attitudes and behaviors among preadolescent girls, and to revise curriculum lessons based on quantitative and qualitative findings. ^ Intervention Design. A formative evaluation was conducted on four Team: Bee Me curriculum lessons at a Houston elementary school. Evaluation focused on program satisfaction and short-term effect on knowledge and eating attitudes and behaviors. ^ Results. Sixteen girls participated in the five-day project. Statistically significant improvements in overall knowledge were observed (p<0.05), however only modest changes were observed in eating attitudes and behaviors. Program satisfaction was high among student participants and the teacher who implemented it. Insight for future modifications to this program and for similar interventions was provided by the students and teacher. ^ Conclusions. This program led to positive trends in outcome variables; however longer and more intensive testing of this program is needed to better evaluate its effectiveness.^

Characterization of diabetes risk factors of elementary school children in low income areas of San Antonio, Texas

The number of children developing type-2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is increasing globally, especially in Western countries. Previous studies have indicated that low socioeconomic status (SES) is a contributing factor to diabetes. This study of children examined the relationship of socioeconomic status and two physiological measures that are risk factors for diabetes: the level of fasting capillary glucose (FCG) and hyperglycemia, in which there is an elevated amount of glucose in the blood. This study utilized data from the study entitled Bienester: A School-Based Diabetes Mellitus Prevention Program. The sample was 1,426 fourth grade students from 27 San Antonio Independent School District elementary schools. The dependent variable was FCG and the independent variable was the median family income associated with the student's zip code based on Census information. Other variables included body mass index, gender, and ethnicity. The statistical results showed no relationship between FCG, continuously defined, and income. In addition, there was no relationship between hyperglycemia and income. Furthermore, there was no relationship of FCG with BMI, gender, or ethnicity. Income measured at the zip code level is likely too aggregate and distal an influence to demonstrate an impact on FCG. Research should continue to examine risk factors associated with the onset of T2DM.^

An investigation into the relationship between screen time, consumption of advertised foods, and physical activity among Texas 4th grade elementary school children

Background. The high prevalence of obesity among children has spurred creation of a list of possible causative factors, including the advertising of foods of minimal nutritional value, a decrease in physical activity, and increased media use. Few studies show prevalence rates of these factors among large cohorts of children. ^ Methods. Using data from the 2004-2005 School Physical Activity and Nutrition project (SPAN), a secondary analysis of 7907 4th-grade children (mean age 9.74 years) was conducted. In addition, a comic-book–based intervention that addressed advertised food consumption, physical activity, and media use was developed and evaluated using a pre-post test design among 4th-grade children in an urban school district. ^ Results. Among a cohort of 4th-grade children across the state of Texas, children who had more than 2 hours of video game or computer time the previous day were more than twice as likely to drink soda and eat candy or pastries. In addition, children who watched more than 2 hours of TV the previous day were more than three times as likely to consume chips, punch, soda, candy, frozen desserts, or pastries (AOR 3.41, 95% CI: 1.58, 7.37). A comic-book based intervention held great promise and acceptance among 4th-grade children. Outcome evaluation showed that while results moved in a positive direction, they were not statistically significant. ^ Conclusion. Statistically significant associations were found between screen time and eating various types of advertised food. The comic book intervention was widely accepted by the children exposed to it, and pre-post surveys indicated they moved constructs in a positive direction. Further research is needed to look at more specific ways in which children are exposed to TV, and the relationship of the TV viewing time with their consumption of advertised foods. In addition, researchers should look at comic book interventions more closely and attempt to utilize them in more in studies with a longer follow-up time. ^