Growth analysis and biomass partitioning of Cyperus iria in response to rice planting density and nitrogen rate

Cyperus iria is a weed of rice with widespread occurrence throughout the world. Because of concerns about excessive and injudicious use of herbicides, cultural weed management approaches that are safe and economical are needed. Developing such approaches will require a better understanding of weed biology and ecology, as well as of weed response to increases in crop density and nutrition. Knowledge of the effects of nitrogen (N) fertilizer on crop-weed competitive interactions could also help in the development of integrated weed management strategies. The present study was conducted in a screenhouse to determine the effects of rice planting density (0, 5, 10, and 20 plants pot−1) and N rate (0, 50, 100, and 150 kg ha−1) on the growth of C. iria. Tiller number per plant decreased by 73–88%, leaf number by 85–94%, leaf area by 85–98%, leaf biomass by 92–99%, and inflorescence biomass by 96–99% when weed plants were grown at 20 rice plants pot−1 (i.e., 400 plants m−2) compared with weed plants grown alone. All of these parameters increased when N rates were increased. On average, weed biomass increased by 118–389% and rice biomass by 121–275% with application of 50–150 kg N ha−1, compared to control. Addition of N favored weed biomass production relative to rice biomass. Increased N rates reduced the root-to-shoot weight ratio of C. iria. Rice interference reduced weed growth and biomass and completely suppressed C. iria when no N was applied at high planting densities (i.e., 20 plants pot−1). The weed showed phenotypic plasticity in response to N application, and the addition of N increased the competitive ability of the weed over rice at densities of 5 and 10 rice plants pot−1 compared with 20 plants pot−1. The results of the present study suggest that high rice density (i.e., 400 plants m−2) can help suppress C. iria growth even at high N rates (150 kg ha−1).

The biology and natural history of Tripogon loliiformis (Poaceae, Chloridoideae), an Australian resurrection grass

Tripogon loliiformis is a desiccation-tolerant grass that occurs throughout mainland Australia. There has been recent interest in this species as a model system for understanding desiccation tolerance in a native grass at the structural, molecular and physiological levels. However, not much is known about the biology and natural history of this species, despite its widespread geographic distribution and remarkable capability of withstanding prolonged drying. We provide an overview of the genus by consolidating information from a wide variety of sources. We report a variety of new and interesting observations on the general biology, ecology and desiccation response of T. loliiformis and conclude by highlighting areas for future research.

Living on voles - plastic life of the Ural owl

Individuals face variable environmental conditions during their life. This may be due to migration, dispersion, environmental changes or, for example, annual variation in weather conditions. Genetic adaptation to a novel environment happens through natural selection. Phenotypic plasticity allows, however, a quick individual response to a new environment. Phenotypic plasticity may also be beneficial for individual if the environment is highly variable. For example, eggs are costly to produce. If the food conditions vary significantly between breeding seasons it is useful to be able to adjust the clutch and egg size according to the food abundance. In this thesis I use Ural owl vole system to study phenotypic plasticity and natural selection using a number of reproduction related traits. The Ural owl (Strix uralensis) is a long-lived and sedentary species. The reproduction and survival of the Ural owl, in fact their whole life, is tied to the dramatically fluctuating vole densities. Ural owls do not cause vole cycles but they have to adjust their behaviour to the rather predictable population fluctuations of these small mammals. Earlier work with this system has shown that Ural owl laying date and clutch size are plastic in relation to vole abundance. Further, individual laying date clutch size reaction norms have been shown to vary in the amount of plasticity. My work extends the knowledge of natural selection and phenotypic plasticity in traits related to reproduction. I show that egg size, timing of the onset of incubation and nest defense aggressiveness are plastic traits with fitness consequences for the Ural owl. Although egg size is in general thought to be a fixed characteristic of an individual, this highly heritable trait in the Ural owl is also remarkably plastic in relation to the changes in vole numbers, Ural owls are laying the largest eggs when their prey is most abundant. Timing of the onset of incubation is an individual-specific property and plastic in relation to clutch size. Timing of incubation is an important underlying cause for asynchronous hatching in birds. Asynchronous hatching is beneficial to offspring survival in Ural owl. Hence, timing of the onset of incubation may also be under natural selection. Ural owl females also adjust their nest defense aggressiveness according to the vole dynamics, being most aggressive in years when they produce the largest broods. Individual females show different levels of nest defense aggressiveness. Aggressiveness is positively correlated with the phenotypic plasticity of aggressiveness. As elevated nest defense aggressiveness is selected for, it may promote the plasticity of aggressive nest defense behaviour. All the studied traits are repeatable or heritable on individual level, and their expression is either directly or indirectly sensitive to changes in vole numbers. My work considers a number of important fitness-related traits showing phenotypic plasticity in all of them. Further, in two chapters I show that there is individual variation in the amount of plasticity exhibited. These findings on plasticity in reproduction related traits suggest that variable environments indeed promote plasticity.

European aspen and hybrid aspen under changing environment : Leaf traits, growth and litter decomposition

Understanding the responses of species and ecosystems to human-induced global environmental change has become a high research priority. The main aim of this thesis was to investigate how certain environmental factors that relate to global change affect European aspen (Populus tremula), a keystone species in boreal forests, and hybrid aspen (P. tremula × P. tremuloides), cultivated in commercial plantations. The main points under consideration were the acclimatization potential of aspen through changes in leaf morphology, as well as effects on growth, leaf litter chemistry and decomposition. The thesis is based on two experiments, in which young aspen (< 1 year) were exposed either to an atmospheric pollutant [elevated ozone (O3)] or variable resource availability [water, nitrogen (N)]; and two field studies, in which mature trees (> 8 years) were growing in environments exposed to multiple environmental stress factors (roadside and urban environments). The field studies included litter decomposition experiments. The results show that young aspen, especially the native European aspen, was sensitive to O3 in terms of visible leaf injuries. Elevated O3 resulted in reduced biomass allocation to roots and accelerated leaf senescence, suggesting negative effects on growth in the long term. Water and N availability modified the frost hardening of young aspen: High N supply, especially when combined with drought, postponed the development of frost hardiness, which in turn may predispose trees to early autumn frosts. This effect was more pronounced in European aspen. The field studies showed that mature aspen acclimatized to roadside and urban environments by producing more xeromorphic leaves. Leaf morphology was also observed to vary in response to interannual climatic variation, which further indicates the ability of aspen for phenotypic plasticity. Intraspecific variation was found in several of the traits measured, although intraspecific differences in response to the abiotic factors examined were generally small throughout the studies. However, some differences between clones were found in sensitivity to O3 and the roadside environment. Aspen leaf litter decomposition was retarded in the roadside environment, but only initially. By contrast, decomposition was found to be faster in the urban than the rural environment throughout the study. The higher quality of urban litter (higher in N, lower in lignin and phenolics), as well as higher temperature, N deposition and humus pH at the urban site were factors likely to promote decay. The phenotypic plasticity combined with intraspecific variation found in the studies imply that aspen has potential for withstanding environmental changes, although some global change factors, such as rising O3 levels, may adversely affect its performance. The results also suggest that the multiple environmental changes taking place in urban areas which correspond closely with the main drivers of global change can modify ecosystem functioning by promoting litter decomposition, mediated partly by alterations in leaf litter quality.

Social selection and the evolution of cooperative groups: The example of the cellular slime moulds

In social selection the phenotype of an individual depends on its own genotype as well as on the phenotypes, and so genotypes, of other individuals. This makes it impossible to associate an invariant phenotype with a genotype: the social context is crucial. Descriptions of metazoan development, which often is viewed as the acme of cooperative social behaviour, ignore or downplay this fact. The implicit justification for doing so is based on a group-selectionist point of view. Namely, embryos are clones, therefore all cells have the same evolutionary interest, and the visible differences between cells result from a common strategy. The reasoning is flawed, because phenotypic heterogeneity within groups can result from contingent choices made by cells from a flexible repertoire as in multicellular development. What makes that possible is phenotypic plasticity, namely the ability of a genotype to exhibit different phenotypes. However, co-operative social behaviour with division of labour requires that different phenotypes interact appropriately, not that they belong to the same genotype, or have overlapping genetic interests. We sketch a possible route to the evolution of social groups that involves many steps: (a) individuals that happen to be in spatial proximity benefit simply by virtue of their number; (b) traits that are already present act as preadaptations and improve the efficiency of the group; and (c) new adaptations evolve under selection in the social context-that is, via interactions between individuals-and further strengthen group behaviour. The Dictyostelid or cellular slime mould amoebae (CSMs) become multicellular in an unusual way, by the aggregation of free-living cells. In nature the resulting group can be genetically homogeneous (clonal) or heterogeneous (polyclonal); in either case its development, which displays strong cooperation between cells (to the extent of so-called altruism) is not affected. This makes the CSMs exemplars for the study of social behaviour.

História de vida das fêmeas de três espécies de Poeciliidae de um riacho costeiro da Mata Atlântica

A teoria da história de vida é uma importante ferramenta para entender diferenças nas estratégias reprodutivas entre populações sob diferentes condições ambientais e para a inferência das possíveis adaptações locais. Os poecilídeos são excelentes modelos para estudos sobre a divergência da história de vida entre populações devido às suas peculiaridades reprodutivas baseadas em diferentes graus de viviparidade, respostas rápidas às condições ambientais, reprodução continuada e curto tempo de geração. Considerando que Phalloceros harpagos, Poecilia vivipara e Poecilia reticulata - três espécies de poecilídeos encontrados no rio Ubatiba, no município de Maricá, Rio de Janeiro - apresentam populações pouco móveis e compartilham dietas semelhantes, a competição por recursos alimentares pode influenciar bastante a história de vida dessas espécies em áreas onde as mesmas coocorrem. As coletas foram realizadas em seis localidades do rio Ubatiba, as quais foram selecionadas pelo padrão de ocorrência das espécies de poecilídeos. Para comparação das histórias de vida das três espécies, foram analisados o comprimento padrão, o tamanho da primeira maturação, o peso total, o índice gonadossomático (IGS), o tamanho da ninhada, e a presença ou ausência de superfetação. Com intuito de aferir as adaptações nas características da história de vida de cada espécie de acordo com a localidade, foram separados os dados das espécies, e então, comparadas as localidades. Além das características citadas, analisou-se também a presença ou ausência de matrotrofia. As análises de correlação demonstraram que o tamanho da fêmea influencia o peso total, o investimento reprodutivo e o tamanho da ninhada das espécies estudadas. As fêmeas grávidas de P. vivipara apresentaram os maiores valores de comprimento padrão, tamanho da primeira maturação, peso total, IGS e tamanho das ninhadas, entre as três espécies. As características da história de vida de P. reticulata exibiram semelhanças ora com P. harpagos (comprimento padrão, tamanho da primeira maturação e peso total), ora com P. vivipara (IGS). O tamanho das ninhadas diferiu significativamente entre as espécies. A superfetação esteve presente entre 12-15% das fêmeas grávidas das três espécies de poecilídeos. A análise das características da história de vida de P. harpagos de acordo com a localidade mostrou que o tamanho, peso, IGS e tamanho da ninhada das fêmeas estão intimamente relacionados à ocorrência de outros poecilídeos. As fêmeas de P. vivipara também apresentaram variações de IGS e tamanho da ninhada ligadas à coocorrência, contudo, não mostraram diferenças de tamanho e peso de acordo com a localidade. Já P. reticulata apresentou diferença de peso, IGS e tamanho da ninhada em relação à ocorrência das outras espécies, mas de tamanho não. Observou-se, para as três espécies, a presença concomitante de superfetação e matrotrofia, e houve indícios de que a variação dos graus de matrotrofia foi influenciada pelos diferentes padrões de ocorrência. Os poecilídeos apresentaram uma variedade de padrões de história de vida, os quais parecem ter sido moldados principalmente pela competição interespecífica por recursos alimentares

Effects of Spring Temperatures on the Strength of Selection on Timing of Reproduction in a Long-Distance Migratory Bird

Climate change has differentially affected the timing of seasonal events for interacting trophic levels, and this has often led to increased selection on seasonal timing. Yet, the environmental variables driving this selection have rarely been identified, limiting our ability to predict future ecological impacts of climate change. Using a dataset spanning 31 years from a natural population of pied flycatchers (Ficedula hypoleuca), we show that directional selection on timing of reproduction intensified in the first two decades (1980-2000) but weakened during the last decade (2001-2010). Against expectation, this pattern could not be explained by the temporal variation in the phenological mismatch with food abundance. We therefore explored an alternative hypothesis that selection on timing was affected by conditions individuals experience when arriving in spring at the breeding grounds: arriving early in cold conditions may reduce survival. First, we show that in female recruits, spring arrival date in the first breeding year correlates positively with hatch date; hence, early-hatched individuals experience colder conditions at arrival than late-hatched individuals. Second, we show that when temperatures at arrival in the recruitment year were high, early-hatched young had a higher recruitment probability than when temperatures were low. We interpret this as a potential cost of arriving early in colder years, and climate warming may have reduced this cost. We thus show that higher temperatures in the arrival year of recruits were associated with stronger selection for early reproduction in the years these birds were born. As arrival temperatures in the beginning of the study increased, but recently declined again, directional selection on timing of reproduction showed a nonlinear change. We demonstrate that environmental conditions with a lag of up to two years can alter selection on phenological traits in natural populations, something that has important implications for our understanding of how climate can alter patterns of selection in natural populations.

丛枝菌根真菌对异质性环境中克隆植物的影响

克隆植物同一基株的相连克隆分株或克隆片段常常生长在资源条件不同的斑块中，分株间形成克隆整合和克隆可塑性以及克隆分工等有效地获取必需资源的生态适应对策，提高在异质性斑块生境中的适合度，适应环境的异质性变化。但在以往的克隆植物生态学的理论研究中，为了研究的简化和方便，往往忽略了土壤中微生物的作用。丛枝菌根(Arbuscular mycorrhiza, AM)真菌是自然界中广泛存在的土壤微生物之一，可与大多数的高等植物形成共生菌根，影响植物的生长、发育及其在生态系统中的作用。 本文应用实验生态学方法，以蛇莓、狗牙根和白三叶为研究对象，在温室受控条件下，对异质养分斑块中的分株对接种AM真菌，探讨AM真菌对资源斑块中克隆植物的影响。 第一个实验设计单一磷养分斑块，以蛇莓(Duchesnea indica)和摩西球囊霉(Glomus mosseae)为研究对象，探讨丛枝AM真菌对克隆整合的影响。将蛇莓相连的两个分株，即分株对，分别种植在两个隔离的花盆中，各施以高磷和低磷营养液，保持或切断分株间匍匐茎连接，即间隔子，再将菌剂接种到低磷斑块中分株。结果发现间隔子状态和接菌处理都显著影响低磷斑块中蛇莓分株的根系生物量分配。对照处理中保持间隔子连接显著减少低磷斑块中分株生物量向根系的分配，接菌后这一差异显著减小。保持间隔子连接或接菌对高磷斑块中分株的根系生物量分配不显著。保持间隔子连接和接菌都显著增加低磷斑块分株的生物量在分株对生物量中所占比例，二者无显著交互作用。 第二个实验设计光照和养分斑块，以狗牙根(Cynodon dactylon)和摩西球囊霉为研究对象，探讨AM真菌对克隆植物非局域反应的影响。将狗牙根分株对的两个分株分别种植在两个花盆中，各施以光照强度与土壤养分交互斑块性环境条件，形成高养低光和高光低养斑块，保持或切断间隔子，再将菌剂接种到目标分株。结果发现对照处理中，间隔子状态显著影响分株的局域反应。高养斑块中保持间隔子连接的分株的根长显著大于间隔子断裂的分株的根长，高光斑块中保持间隔子连接的分株的根长显著小于间隔子断裂的分株的根长。高光斑块中保持间隔子连接的分株的叶面积显著大于间隔子断裂的分株的叶面积，间隔子状态对低光高养斑块分株的叶面积无显著影响。在低光高养斑块中，相对于间隔子断裂的分株，间隔子连接的分株将更多的生物量分配到根系，而在高光斑块中的分株则相反。这些都说明，无AM真菌侵染的情况下，狗牙根分株对的两个分株在实验中各自形成的克隆部分的分株形态反应都受到了克隆整合的作用，表现为非局域反应。接种AM真菌后，高光斑块中分株的根长和高养斑块中分株的叶面积在间隔子连接和断裂处理之间的差异显著减小。生物量分配的差异不受接菌的影响。对照处理中，高养斑块中间隔子连接的分株生物量和分株数显著高于间隔子断裂的分株，但高光斑块中分株之间无显著差异。接种AM真菌显著降低高养斑块中分株的生物量和分株数，对高光斑块中分株无显著影响。 第三个实验设计光照和养分交互斑块，以白三叶(Trifolium repens)和多种AM真菌为研究对象，探讨AM真菌及其多样性对克隆分工的影响。将间隔子连接(整合)或断裂(无整合)的白三叶分株对种植于光照强度和土壤养分交互斑块性资源条件下(即，高光低养和低光高养)，向分株对接种灭菌处理、单种或五种AM真菌的菌剂。结果发现，对照处理中，间隔子连接的分株对在光养交互斑块中与间隔子断裂的分株对相比较表现出克隆分工，即高光低养斑块中的分株的根系生物量分配增加，低光高养斑块中的分株的根系生物量分配减少。单菌处理没有影响对照处理中间隔子状态对分株对生物量分配的改变；多菌处理显著减小对照中生物量分配的改变；与单菌处理比较，多菌处理能显著减小生物量分配的改变。在高光低养斑块中，多菌处理显著抑制间隔子断裂分株的根生物量分配的增加。在低光高养斑块中，多菌处理完全抑制在对照处理中间隔子连接的分株的根生物量分配的增加。在对照处理中，间隔子连接分株的单叶面积、总叶面积、叶柄长、根长都与生物量分配趋势一致，表现出对丰富资源的特化。接菌处理能显著抑制这些形态指标的改变。多菌处理显著抑制这些指标的特化，并且抑制效果显著强于单菌处理。间隔子状态和AM真菌处理显著增加高光低养、低光高养斑块中分株及整个克隆片段的生物量和分株数。多菌处理抑制间隔子连接的克隆片段生物量和分株数增加。克隆片段的生物量和分株数在对照和单菌处理间无显著差异，在多菌处理中显著高于在单菌处理中。 以上三个实验说明，(1)AM真菌对克隆植物生长的影响与非克隆植物一样，受到植物种类和环境资源水平的影响；(2)AM真菌对异质性资源环境中克隆植物的影响由于植物不同而产生不同的效应；(3)提高AM真菌的多样性可能增强菌根对克隆植物的作用。 这些研究结果揭示出AM真菌与异质性环境中克隆植物整合作用、非局域反应和克隆分工作用的交互影响，表明克隆生长在生态系统中的重要性可由生物和非生物因素共同决定。

Factors affecting leaf morphology: a case study of Ranunculus natans C. A. Mey. (Ranunculaceae) in the arid zone of northwest China

In order to examine the role of environmental factors affecting foliar morphology, we performed a case study of leaf morphological variation of Ranunculus natans found in the arid zone of northwest China. We found that foliar phenotypic variation differed significantly between populations. We described substantial positive correlations between altitude and leaf area (LA) as well as leaf perimeter (LP), and also between longitude and number of teeth, along with dissection index (DI). The pH, conductivity, and salinity of the environment caused a significant decrease in both LA and LP. Ranked in terms of their impacts on leaf morphology, the six selected factors were: altitude > pH > conductivity > salinity > longitude > latitude. We found that foliar morphological variations are functional responses to water-quantity factors (e.g., altitude and longitude at regional scales) and water-availability relation factors (e.g., pH, conductivity, and salinity at local scales), rather than to temperature-relation factors (latitude). Therefore, altitude and longitude, along with pH, conductivity, and salinity, are the main factors that significantly influence foliar morphology in the arid zone of China. We found that main factors played major roles in plant phenotypic plasticity in a complex ecosystem, although different combinations and interactions of environmental and geographical factors in each local environment may obscure the general trends in trait changes along environmental gradients.

小鲵属分子系统发育研究

小鲵属为亚洲特有的有尾两栖类，是小鲵科之模式属。现记载小鲵属动物有29种，占全科物种数一半以上（Frost, 2007），为小鲵科第一大属。该属分布跨越古北界和东洋界，分布于中国、朝鲜、韩国、日本等地区，其系统学研究一直以来颇为中外学者所关注。澄清该属的物种分类问题，阐明其种间的系统发育关系对整个小鲵科的系统演化与分布格局关系的研究具有关键性意义。 本论文以中国及周边地区的小鲵属物种为主要对象，主要利用分子生物学实验与生物信息学途径相结合的手段，运用支序系统学与分子进化生物学理论及分析方法，展开系统发育的研究。在此基础上诠释现存的分类问题，并探讨该属系统发育关系。 研究材料上，本研究采用野外采集与网络下载数据相结合的方法，获取了较为全面的小鲵属物种DNA序列资料。技术手段上，选取了线粒体DNA的Cytb、12S、16S、NADH 2、COI等多个基因部分片段序列，对小鲵属开展了较为全面系统的研究。分析方法上，针对小鲵属物种各类群的具体情况，运用了处于领域前沿的多种分析方法。应用PAUP、MrBayes、Modeltest、Mega等软件，采用了最大简约法（MP）、邻接法（NJ）、贝叶斯推断（BI）及K2P遗传距离分析等方法。 本研究对小鲵属进行了较为全面的系统发育研究，弥补了有关小鲵属系统发育研究的不足，并得出了以下结果： （1）关于豫南小鲵Hynobius yunanicus的有效性，基于细胞色素b序列的系统发育关系联合形态和染色体组型等证据证明了豫南小鲵是商城肥鲵的同物异名。 （2）获得了较为全面的小鲵属物种系统发育树，并以此解释了北海道滞育小鲵、东北小鲵、中国小鲵与义乌小鲵等存在的分类问题。 （3）本研究利用DNA条形码技术对小鲵属及小鲵科物种进行了鉴定，再次证明豫南小鲵为商城肥鲵的同物异名；并认为猫儿山小鲵与挂榜山小鲵为同物异名。 综上，本研究较为完整地勾勒了小鲵属的系统发育关系全貌，并对小鲵属物种的起源进行了推测。 Hynobius, the type genus of the Family Hynobiidae, is the only exclusively Asian salamander genus. This genus which contains 29 species (beyond half of total Family), is the key group in Hynobiidae. The genus distributed across Palaearctic and Oriental Realm, and was found in China, Korea, and Japan. Systematics of genus Hynobius draws attention of researchers all the times. Resolving the taxonomic and phynogenetic questions of Hynobius is very important to the evolutionary research of Family Hynobiidae. Firstly, studies on systematics of genus Hynobius based on morphology, karyotype and molecular phylogeny of Hynobius are reviewed along with existing questions of this genus. The sequential reaserch project of phylogenetics is perspectively outlined. Using molecular data, we compared Hynobius yunanicus with a sympatric species Pachyhynobius shangchengensis. Our cytb sequences associating with karyotypic and morphological data supportted that H. yunanicus is not a valid species, but a synonym of P. shangchengensis. Because of phenotypic plasticity, some morphological characters are not even suitable for identifying hynobiids. The taxonomy of hynobiids is still controversial to a certain extent (Zhao et al. 1993; Fei, 1999; Chen et al. 2001; Zeng et al. 2006) and needs to be resolved by a new method. Here we examined the utility of COI barcoding for the discrimination of hynobiids. Meantime, the taxonomy of this Family was looked-over again. Our result show that the DNA Barcoding based on COI is easier and more rapidly than classic methods. And the DNA Barcodes data supported the actual taxonomy of Hynobiidae. Based on the achievements of our research, the phylogeny of Hynobius was reconstructed including some new species (H. maoershanensis, H. guabangshanensis, etc). Besides the phylogenetics of Hynobius was outlined, some questions and the hypothesis about the origin of genus Hynobius was put out.

Late winter under ice pelagic microbial communities in the high Arctic Ocean and the impact of short-term exposure to elevated CO2 levels

Polar Oceans are natural CO2 sinks because of the enhanced solubility of CO2 in cold water. The Arctic Ocean is at additional risk of accelerated ocean acidification (OA) because of freshwater inputs from sea ice and rivers, which influence the carbonate system. Winter conditions in the Arctic are of interest because of both cold temperatures and limited CO2 venting to the atmosphere when sea ice is present. Earlier OA experiments on Arctic microbial communities conducted in the absence of ice cover, hinted at shifts in taxa dominance and diversity under lowered pH. The Catlin Arctic Survey provided an opportunity to conduct in situ, under-ice, OA experiments during late Arctic winter. Seawater was collected from under the sea ice off Ellef Ringnes Island, and communities were exposed to three CO2 levels for 6 days. Phylogenetic diversity was greater in the attached fraction compared to the free-living fraction in situ, in the controls and in the treatments. The dominant taxa in all cases were Gammaproteobacteria but acidification had little effect compared to the effects of containment. Phylogenetic net relatedness indices suggested that acidification may have decreased the diversity within some bacterial orders, but overall there was no clear trend. Within the experimental communities, alkalinity best explained the variance among samples and replicates, suggesting subtle changes in the carbonate system need to be considered in such experiments. We conclude that under ice communities have the capacity to respond either by selection or phenotypic plasticity to heightened CO2 levels over the short term.

Abundance of a chlorophyll a precursor and the oxidation product hydroxychlorophyll a during seasonal phytoplankton community progression in the Western English Channel

This study presents the first in-situ measurements of the chlorophyll a oxidation product, hydroxychlorophyll a as well as the chlorophyll a precursor, chlorophyll aP276 conducted over an annual cycle. Chlorophyll a oxidation products, such as hydroxychlorophyll a may be associated with the decline of algal populations and can act as an initial step in the degradation of chlorophyll a into products which can be found in the geochemical record, important for studying past climate change events. Here, hydroxychlorophyll a and chlorophyll aP276 were measured at the long-term monitoring station L4, Western Channel Observatory (UK, www.westernchannelobservatory.org) over an annual cycle (2012). Weekly measurements of phytoplankton species composition and abundance enabled detailed analysis of possible sources of hydroxychlorophyll a. Dinoflagellates, 2 diatom species, the prymnesiophyte Phaeocystis spp. and the coccolithophorid Emiliania huxleyi were all associated with hydroxychlorophyll a occurrence. However, during alternate peaks in abundance of the diatoms, no association with hydroxychlorophyll a occurred, indicating that the oxidation of chlorophyll a was dependant not only on species but also on additional factors such as the mode of mortality, growth limiting factor (i.e. nutrient concentration) or phenotypic plasticity. Surface sediment samples contained 10 times more hydroxychlorophyll a (relative to chlorophyll a) than pelagic particulate samples, indicating that more chlorophyll a oxidation occurred during sedimentation or at the sediment–water interface, than in the pelagic environment. In addition, chlorophyll aP276 correlated with chl-a concentration, thus supporting its assignment as a chl-a precursor.

Convergent evolutionary processes driven by foraging opportunity in two sympatric morph pairs of Arctic charr with contrasting post-glacial origins

The expression of two or more discrete phenotypes amongst individuals within a species (morphs) provides multiple modes upon which selection can act semi-independently, and thus may be an important stage in speciation. In the present study, we compared two sympatric morph systems aiming to address hypotheses related to their evolutionary origin. Arctic charr in sympatry in Loch Tay, Scotland, exhibit one of two discrete, alternative body size phenotypes at maturity (large or small body size). Arctic charr in Loch Awe segregate into two temporally segregated spawning groups (breeding in either spring or autumn). Mitochondrial DNA restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis showed that the morph pairs in both lakes comprise separate gene pools, although segregation of the Loch Awe morphs is more subtle than that of Loch Tay. We conclude that the Loch Awe morphs diverged in situ (within the lake), whereas Loch Tay morphs most likely arose through multiple invasions by different ancestral groups that segregated before post-glacial invasion (i.e. in allopatry). Both morph pairs showed clear trophic segregation between planktonic and benthic resources (measured by stable isotope analysis) but this was significantly less distinct in Loch Tay than in Loch Awe. By contrast, both inter-morph morphological and life-history differences were more subtle in Loch Awe than in Loch Tay. The strong ecological but relatively weak morphological and life-history divergence of the in situ derived morphs compared to morphs with allopatric origins indicates a strong link between early ecological and subsequent genetic divergence of sympatric origin emerging species pairs. The emergence of parallel specialisms despite distinct genetic origins of these morph pairs suggests that the effect of available foraging opportunities may be at least as important as genetic origin in structuring sympatric divergence in post-glacial fishes with high levels of phenotypic plasticity. (c) 2012 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2012, , .

Pathogen-induced hatching and population-specific life-history response to water-borne cues in brown trout (Salmo trutta)

Hatching is an important niche shift, and embryos in a wide range of taxa can either accelerate or delay this life-history switch in order to avoid stage-specific risks. Such behavior can occur in response to stress itself and to chemical cues that allow anticipation of stress. We studied the genetic organization of this phenotypic plasticity and tested whether there are differences among populations and across environments in order to learn more about the evolutionary potential of stress-induced hatching. As a study species, we chose the brown trout (Salmo trutta; Salmonidae). Gametes were collected from five natural populations (within one river network) and used for full-factorial in vitro fertilizations. The resulting embryos were either directly infected with Pseudomonas fluorescens or were exposed to waterborne cues from P. fluorescens-infected conspecifics. We found that direct inoculation with P. fluorescens increased embryonic mortality and induced hatching in all host populations. Exposure to waterborne cues revealed population-specific responses. We found significant additive genetic variation for hatching time, and genetic variation in trait plasticity. In conclusion, hatching is induced in response to infection and can be affected by waterborne cues of infection, but populations and families differ in their reaction to the latter.