A code for direct numerical simulation of turbulent boundary layers at high Reynolds numbers in BG/P supercomputers

A new high-resolution code for the direct numerical simulation of a zero pressure gradient turbulent boundary layers over a flat plate has been developed. Its purpose is to simulate a wide range of Reynolds numbers from Reθ = 300 to 6800 while showing a linear weak scaling up to 32,768 cores in the BG/P architecture. Special attention has been paid to the generation of proper inflow boundary conditions. The results are in good agreement with existing numerical and experimental data sets.

Characteristics of the turbulent/nonturbulent interface in boundary layers, jets and shear-free turbulence

The characteristics of turbulent/nonturbulent interfaces (TNTI) from boundary layers, jets and shear-free turbulence are compared using direct numerical simulations. The TNTI location is detected by assessing the volume of turbulent flow as function of the vorticity magnitude and is shown to be equivalent to other procedures using a scalar field. Vorticity maps show that the boundary layer contains a larger range of scales at the interface than in jets and shear-free turbulence where the change in vorticity characteristics across the TNTI is much more dramatic. The intermittency parameter shows that the extent of the intermittency region for jets and boundary layers is similar and is much bigger than in shear-free turbulence, and can be used to compute the vorticity threshold defining the TNTI location. The statistics of the vorticity jump across the TNTI exhibit the imprint of a large range of scales, from the Kolmogorov micro-scale to scales much bigger than the Taylor scale. Finally, it is shown that contrary to the classical view, the low-vorticity spots inside the jet are statistically similar to isotropic turbulence, suggesting that engulfing pockets simply do not exist in jets

Entrainment Effects in Turbulent Boundary Layers

Esta tesis estudia el comportamiento de la región exterior de una capa límite turbulenta sin gradientes de presiones. Se ponen a prueba dos teorías relativamente bien establecidas. La teoría de semejanza para la pared supone que en el caso de haber una pared rugosa, el fluido sólo percibe el cambio en la fricción superficial que causa, y otros efectos secundarios quedarán confinados a una zona pegada a la pared. El consenso actual es que dicha teoría es aproximadamente cierta. En el extremo exterior de la capa límite existe una región producida por la interacción entre las estructuras turbulentas y el flujo irrotacional de la corriente libre llamada interfaz turbulenta/no turbulenta. La mayoría de los resultados al respecto sugieren la presencia de fuerzas de cortadura ligeramente más intensa, lo que la hace distinta al resto del flujo turbulento. Las propiedades de esa región probablemente cambien si la velocidad de crecimiento de la capa límite aumenta, algo que puede conseguirse aumentando la fricción en la pared. La rugosidad y la ingestión de masa están entonces relacionadas, y el comportamiento local de la interfaz turbulenta/no turbulenta puede explicar el motivo por el que las capas límite sobre paredes rugosas no se comportan como en el caso de tener paredes lisas precisamente en la zona exterior. Para estudiar las capas límite a números de Reynolds lo suficientemente elevados, se ha desarrollado un nuevo código de alta resolución para la simulación numérica directa de capas límite turbulentas sin gradiente de presión. Dicho código es capaz de simular capas límite en un intervalo de números de Reynolds entre ReT = 100 — 2000 manteniendo una buena escalabilidad hasta los dos millones de hilos en superordenadores de tipo Blue Gene/Q. Se ha guardado especial atención a la generación de condiciones de contorno a la entrada correctas. Los resultados obtenidos están en concordancia con los resultados previos, tanto en el caso de simulaciones como de experimentos. La interfaz turbulenta/no turbulenta de una capa límite se ha analizado usando un valor umbral del módulo de la vorticidad. Dicho umbral se considera un parámetro para analizar cada superficie obtenida de un contorno del módulo de la vorticidad. Se han encontrado dos regímenes distintos en función del umbral escogido con propiedades opuestas, separados por una transición topológica gradual. Las características geométricas de la zona escalan con o99 cuando u^/isdgg es la unidad de vorticidad. Las propiedades del íluido relativas a la posición del contorno de vorticidad han sido analizados para una serie de umbrales utilizando el campo de distancias esféricas, que puede obtenerse con independencia de la complejidad de la superficie de referencia. Las propiedades del fluido a una distancia dada del inerfaz también dependen del umbral de vorticidad, pero tienen características parecidas con independencia del número de Reynolds. La interacción entre la turbulencia y el flujo no turbulento se restringe a una zona muy fina con un espesor del orden de la escala de Kolmogorov local. Hacia el interior del flujo turbulento las propiedades son indistinguibles del resto de la capa límite. Se ha simulado una capa límite sin gradiente de presiones con una fuerza volumétrica cerca de la pared. La el forzado ha sido diseñado para aumentar la fricción en la pared sin introducir ningún efecto geométrico obvio. La simulación consta de dos dominios, un primer dominio más pequeño y a baja resolución que se encarga de generar condiciones de contorno correctas, y un segundo dominio mayor y a alta resolución donde se aplica el forzado. El estudio de los perfiles y los coeficientes de autocorrelación sugieren que los dos casos, el liso y el forzado, no colapsan más allá de la capa logarítmica por la complejidad geométrica de la zona intermitente, y por el hecho que la distancia a la pared no es una longitud característica. Los efectos causados por la geometría de la zona intermitente pueden evitarse utilizando el interfaz como referencia, y la distancia esférica para el análisis de sus propiedades. Las propiedades condicionadas del flujo escalan con 5QQ y u/uT, las dos únicas escalas contenidas en el modelo de semejanza de pared de Townsend, consistente con estos resultados. ABSTRACT This thesis studies the characteristics of the outer region of zero-pressure-gradient turbulent boundary layers at moderate Reynolds numbers. Two relatively established theories are put to test. The wall similarity theory states that with the presence of roughness, turbulent motion is mostly affected by the additional drag caused by the roughness, and that other secondary effects are restricted to a region very close to the wall. The consensus is that this theory is valid, but only as a first approximation. At the edge of the boundary layer there is a thin layer caused by the interaction between the turbulent eddies and the irroational fluid of the free stream, called turbulent/non-turbulent interface. The bulk of results about this layer suggest the presence of some localized shear, with properties that make it distinguishable from the rest of the turbulent flow. The properties of the interface are likely to change if the rate of spread of the turbulent boundary layer is amplified, an effect that is usually achieved by increasing the drag. Roughness and entrainment are therefore linked, and the local features of the turbulent/non-turbulent interface may explain the reason why rough-wall boundary layers deviate from the wall similarity theory precisely far from the wall. To study boundary layers at a higher Reynolds number, a new high-resolution code for the direct numerical simulation of a zero pressure gradient turbulent boundary layers over a flat plate has been developed. This code is able to simulate a wide range of Reynolds numbers from ReT =100 to 2000 while showing a linear weak scaling up to around two million threads in the BG/Q architecture. Special attention has been paid to the generation of proper inflow boundary conditions. The results are in good agreement with existing numerical and experimental data sets. The turbulent/non-turbulent interface of a boundary layer is analyzed by thresholding the vorticity magnitude field. The value of the threshold is considered a parameter in the analysis of the surfaces obtained from isocontours of the vorticity magnitude. Two different regimes for the surface can be distinguished depending on the threshold, with a gradual topological transition across which its geometrical properties change significantly. The width of the transition scales well with oQg when u^/udgg is used as a unit of vorticity. The properties of the flow relative to the position of the vorticity magnitude isocontour are analyzed within the same range of thresholds, using the ball distance field, which can be obtained regardless of the size of the domain and complexity of the interface. The properties of the flow at a given distance to the interface also depend on the threshold, but they are similar regardless of the Reynolds number. The interaction between the turbulent and the non-turbulent flow occurs in a thin layer with a thickness that scales with the Kolmogorov length. Deeper into the turbulent side, the properties are undistinguishable from the rest of the turbulent flow. A zero-pressure-gradient turbulent boundary layer with a volumetric near-wall forcing has been simulated. The forcing has been designed to increase the wall friction without introducing any obvious geometrical effect. The actual simulation is split in two domains, a smaller one in charge of the generation of correct inflow boundary conditions, and a second and larger one where the forcing is applied. The study of the one-point and twopoint statistics suggest that the forced and the smooth cases do not collapse beyond the logarithmic layer may be caused by the geometrical complexity of the intermittent region, and by the fact that the scaling with the wall-normal coordinate is no longer present. The geometrical effects can be avoided using the turbulent/non-turbulent interface as a reference frame, and the minimum distance respect to it. The conditional analysis of the vorticity field with the alternative reference frame recovers the scaling with 5QQ and v¡uT already present in the logarithmic layer, the only two length-scales allowed if Townsend’s wall similarity hypothesis is valid.

Muro cortina modular con marco de baja transmitancia térmica integrado en el vidrio aislante a través de adhesivos estructurales = Unitised curtain wall with low thermal transmittance frame integrated within the insulating glass unit through structural adhesives

Los muros cortina modulares están constituidos por paneles prefabricados que se fijan al edificio a través de anclajes a lo largo del borde del forjado. El proceso de prefabricación garantiza buena calidad y control de los acabados y el proceso de instalación es rápido y no requiere andamiaje. Por estas razones su uso está muy extendido en torres. Sin embargo, el diseño de los marcos de aluminio podría ser más eficiente si se aprovechara la rigidez de los vidrios para reducir la profundidad estructural de los montantes. Asimismo, se podrían reducir los puentes térmicos en las juntas si se sustituyeran los marcos por materiales de menor conductividad térmica que el aluminio. Esta investigación persigue desarrollar un muro cortina alternativo que reduzca la profundidad estructural, reduzca la transmisión térmica en las juntas y permita un acabado enrasado al interior, sin que sobresalgan los montantes. La idea consiste en conectar un marco de material compuesto de fibra de vidrio a lo largo del borde del vidrio aislante a través de adhesivos estructurales para así movilizar una acción estructural compuesta entre los dos vidrios y lograr una baja transmitancia térmica. El marco ha de estar integrado en la profundidad del vidrio aislante. En una primera fase se han efectuado cálculos estructurales y térmicos preliminares para evaluar las prestaciones a un nivel esquemático. Además, se han realizado ensayos a flexión en materiales compuestos de fibra de vidrio y ensayos a cortante en las conexiones adhesivas entre vidrio y material compuesto. Con la información obtenida se ha seleccionado el material del marco y del adhesivo y se han efectuado cambios sobre el diseño original. Los análisis numéricos finales demuestran una reducción de la profundidad estructural de un 80% y una reducción de la transmisión térmica de un 6% en comparación con un sistema convencional tomado como referencia. El sistema propuesto permite obtener acabados enrasados. ABSTRACT Unitised curtain wall systems consist of pre manufactured cladding panels which can be fitted to the building via pre fixed brackets along the edge of the floor slab. They are universally used for high rise buildings because the factory controlled assembly of units ensures high quality and allows fast installation without external access. However, its frame is structurally over-dimensioned because it is designed to carry the full structural load, failing to take advantage of potential composite contribution of glass. Subsequently, it is unnecessarily deep, occupying valuable space, and protrudes to the inside, causing visual disruption. Moreover, it is generally made of high thermal conductivity metal alloys, contributing to substantial thermal transmission at joints. This research aims to develop a novel frame-integrated unitised curtain wall system that will reduce thermal transmission at joints, reduce structural depth significantly and allow an inside flush finish. The idea is to adhesively bond a Fibre Reinforced Polymer (FRP) frame to the edge of the Insulated Glass Unit (IGU), thereby achieving composite structural behaviour and low thermal transmittance. The frame is to fit within the glazing cavity depth. Preliminary analytical structural and numerical thermal calculations are carried out to assess the performance of an initial schematic design. 4-point bending tests on GFRP and single-lap shear tests on bonded connections between GFRP and glass are performed to inform the frame and adhesive material selection process and to characterise these materials. Based on the preliminary calculations and experimental tests, some changes are put into effect to improve the performance of the system and mitigate potential issues. Structural and thermal numerical analysis carried out on the final detail design confirm a reduction of the structural depth to almost one fifth and a reduction of thermal transmission of 6% compared to a benchmark conventional system. A flush glazed appearance both to the inside and the outside are provided while keeping the full functionality of a unitised system.

XRD analysis of InGaN uniform layers grown on Si (111) without any buffer layers and on Sapphire

The International Workshop on Nitride Semiconductors (IWN) is a biennial academic conference in the field of group III nitride research. The IWN and the International Conference on Nitride Semiconductors (ICNS) are held in alternating years and cover similar subject areas.

High sensitivity biosensors based on shear mode AIN resonators for in liquid operation

El diagnóstico y detección temprana de enfermedades son clave para reducir la tasa de mortalidad, las hospitalizaciones de larga duración y el desaprovechamiento de recursos. En los últimos años se ha impulsado, mediante un aumento de la financiación, el desarrollo de nuevos biosensores de bajo coste capaces de detectar y cuantificar cantidades muy pequeñas de especies biológicas de una forma barata y sencilla. El trabajo presentado en esta Tesis Doctoral describe la investigación llevada a cabo en el desarrollo de sensores gravimétricos basados en resonadores de ondas acústicas de volumen (BAW) de estructura maciza (SMR). Los dispositivos emplean películas delgadas de A1N como material piezoeléctrico y operan en modo de cizalladura, para así poder detectar especies biológicas en medio líquido. El principio de funcionamiento de estos sensores se basa en la variación que experimenta la frecuencia de resonancia al quedar una pequeña masa adherida a su superficie. Necesitan operar en modo de cizalladura para que su resonancia no se atenúe al trabajar en medio líquido, así como ofrecer una superficie capaz de ser funcionalizada específicamente para la especie biológica a detectar. El reto planteado en esta tesis requiere un acercamiento pluridisciplinar al problema que incluye el estudio de los diferentes materiales que constituyen la estructura multicapa que forma un SMR, el diseño y fabricación del dispositivo y del sistema de fluídica, la funcionalización bioquímica de la superficie del sensor, la demostración de la capacidad de detección de especies biológicas y finalmente el diseño y fabricación de la electrónica asociada para la detección de la señal eléctrica. Todas esas tareas han sido abordadas en las distintas etapas del desarrollo de esta tesis y las contribuciones más relevantes se describen en el documento. En el campo de desarrollo de los materiales, se propone un proceso en dos etapas para la pulverización reactiva de capas de A1N que contengan microcristales inclinados capaces de excitar el modo de cizalladura. Se caracteriza la velocidad acústica del modo de cizalladura en todos los materiales que componen la estructura, con el fin de poder obtener un diseño más adecuado del reflector acústico. Se propone un nuevo tipo de material aislante de alta impedancia acústica consistente en capas de W03 pulverizadas que presenta ciertas ventajas tecnológicas frente a las capas convencionales de Ta205. Respecto del diseño del transductor, se estudia la influencia que tienen los con tactos eléctricos extendidos del resonador necesarios para poder adaptar el sistema de fluídica a la estructura. Los resultados indican que es necesario trabajar sobre sustratos aislantes (tanto el soporte como el espejo acústico) para evitar efectos parásitos asociados al uso de capas metálicas bajo los electrodos del resonador que dañan su resonancia. Se analiza la influencia de las diferentes capas del dispositivo en el coeficiente de temperatura de la frecuencia (TCF) del resonador llegando a la conclusión de que las dos últimas capas del reflector acústico afectan significativamente al TCF del SMR, pudiendo reducirse ajusfando adecuadamente sus espesores. De acuerdo con los resultados de estos estudios, se han diseñado finalmente resonadores SMR operando a f .3 GHz en modo de cizalladura, con un área activa de 65000 /xm2, contactos eléctricos que se extienden f .7 mm y factores de calidad en líquido de f 50. Las extensiones eléctricas permiten adaptar el resonador a un sistema de fluídica de metacrilato. Para la detección de especies biológicas se realiza un montaje experimental que permite circular 800 ¡A por la superficie del sensor a través de un circuito cerrado que trabaja a volumen constante. La circulación de soluciones iónicas sobre el sensor descubierto pone de manifiesto que las altas frecuencias de operación previenen los cortocircuitos y por tanto el aislamiento de los electrodos es prescindible. Se desarrolla un protocolo ad-hoc de funcionalización basado en el proceso estándar APTESGlutaraldehído. Se proponen dos alternativas novedosas para la funcionalización de las áreas activas del sensor basadas en el uso de capas de oxidación de Ir02 y su activación a través de un plasma de oxígeno que no daña al dispositivo. Ambos procesos contribuyen a simplificar notablemente la funcionalización de los sensores gravimétricos. Se utilizan anticuerpos y aptámeros como receptores para detectar trombina, anticuerpo monoclonal IgG de ratón y bacteria sonicadas. Una calibración preliminar del sensor con depósitos de capas finas de Si02 de densidad y espesor conocidos permite obtener una sensibilidad de 1800 kHz/pg-cm2 y un límite de detección of 4.2 pg. Finalmente se propone el prototipo de un circuito electrónico de excitación y lectura de bajo coste diseñado empleando teoría de circuitos de microondas. Aunque su diseño y funcionamiento admite mejoras, constituye la última etapa de un sistema completo de bajo coste para el diagnóstico de especies biológicas basado en resonadores SMR de A1N. ABSTRACT Early diagnosis and detection of diseases are essential for reducing mortality rate and preventing long-term hospitalization and waste of resources. These requirements have boosted the efforts and funding on the research of accurate and reliable means for detection and quantification of biological species, also known as biosensors. The work presented in this thesis describes the development and fabrication of gravimetric biosensors based on piezoelectric AlN bulk acoustic wave (BAW) solidly mounted resonators (SMRs) for detection of biological species in liquid media. These type of devices base their sensing principles in the variation that their resonant frequency suffers when a mass is attached to their surface. They need to operate in the shear mode to maintain a strong resonance in liquid and an adequate functionalisation of their sensing area to guarantee that only the targeted molecules cause the shift. The challenges that need to be overcome to achieve piezoelectric BAW resonators for high sensitivity detection in fluids require a multidisciplinary approach, that include the study of the materials involved, the design of the device and the fluidic system, the biochemical functionalisation of the active area, the experimental proof-of-concept with different target species and the design of an electronic readout circuit. All this tasks have been tackled at different stages of the thesis and the relevant contributions are described in the document. In the field of materials, a two-stage sputtering deposition process has been developed to obtain good-quality AlN films with uniformly tilted grains required to excite the shear mode. The shear acoustic velocities of the materials composing the acoustic reflector have been accurately studied to ensure an optimum design of the reflector stack. WO3 sputtered films have been proposed as high acoustic impedance material for insulating acoustic reflectors. They display several technological advantages for the processing of the resonators. Regarding the design, a study of the influence of the electrical extensions necessary to fit a fluidic system on the performance of the devices has been performed. The results indicate that high resistivity substrates and insulating reflectors are necessary to avoid the hindering of the resonance due to the parasitic effects induced by the extensions. The influence of the different layers of the stack on the resultant TCF of the SMRs has also been investigated. The two layers of the reflector closer to the piezoelectric layer have a significant influence on the TCF, which can be reduced by modifying their thicknesses accordingly. The data provided by these studies has led to the final design of the devices, which operate at 1.3 GHz in the shear mode and display an active area of 65000 /xm2 and electrical extensions of 1.7 mm while keeping a Qahear=150 in liquid. The extensions enable to fit a custom-made fluidic system made of methacrylate. To perform the biosensing experiments, an experimental setup with a liquid closed circuit operating at constant flow has been developed. Buffers of ionic characteristics have been tested on non-isolated devices, revealing that high operation frequencies prevent the risk of short circuit. An ad-hoc functionalisation protocol based on the standard APTES - Glutaraldehyde process has been developed. It includes two new processes that simplify the fabrication of the transducers: the use of IrO2 as oxidation layer and its functionalisation through an O2 plasma treatment that does not damage the resonators. Both antibodies and aptamers are used as receptors. In liquid sensing proof-of-concept experiments with thrombin, IgG mouse monoclonal antibody and sonicated bacteria have been displayed. A preliminary calibration of the devices using SiO2 layers reveals a sensitivity of 1800 kHz/pg-cm2 and a limit of detection of 4.2 pg. Finally, a first prototype of a low-cost electronic readout circuit designed using a standard microwave approach has been developed. Although its performance can be significantly improved, it is an effective first approach to the final stage of a portable low-cost diagnostic system based on shear mode AlN SMRs.

Design of broadband transmitarray unit cells with comparative study of different numbers of layers

A generalized methodology to design low-profile transmitarray (TA) antennas made of several stacked layers with nonresonant printed phasing elements is presented. A study of the unit cell bandwidth, phase-shift range and tolerances has been conducted considering different numbers of layers. A structure with three metalized layers with capacitive and inductive elements enabling a phase range of nearly 360° and low insertion loss is introduced. A study of the four-layer structure shows improvement in the performance of the unit cells in terms of bandwidth from 2% to more than 20% and a complete phase coverage. Implementations on a flexible substrate of TAs with progressive phase shift operating at 19 GHz are used for validation.

Fluctuations and stimulus-induced changes in blood flow observed in individual capillaries in layers 2 through 4 of rat neocortex

Cortical blood flow at the level of individual capillaries and the coupling of neuronal activity to flow in capillaries are fundamental aspects of homeostasis in the normal and the diseased brain. To probe the dynamics of blood flow at this level, we used two-photon laser scanning microscopy to image the motion of red blood cells (RBCs) in individual capillaries that lie as far as 600 μm below the pia mater of primary somatosensory cortex in rat; this depth encompassed the cortical layers with the highest density of neurons and capillaries. We observed that the flow was quite variable and exhibited temporal fluctuations around 0.1 Hz, as well as prolonged stalls and occasional reversals of direction. On average, the speed and flux (cells per unit time) of RBCs covaried linearly at low values of flux, with a linear density of ≈70 cells per mm, followed by a tendency for the speed to plateau at high values of flux. Thus, both the average velocity and density of RBCs are greater at high values of flux than at low values. Time-locked changes in flow, localized to the appropriate anatomical region of somatosensory cortex, were observed in response to stimulation of either multiple vibrissae or the hindlimb. Although we were able to detect stimulus-induced changes in the flux and speed of RBCs in some single trials, the amplitude of the stimulus-evoked changes in flow were largely masked by basal fluctuations. On average, the flux and the speed of RBCs increased transiently on stimulation, although the linear density of RBCs decreased slightly. These findings are consistent with a stimulus-induced decrease in capillary resistance to flow.

Nanohedra: Using symmetry to design self assembling protein cages, layers, crystals, and filaments

A general strategy is described for designing proteins that self assemble into large symmetrical nanomaterials, including molecular cages, filaments, layers, and porous materials. In this strategy, one molecule of protein A, which naturally forms a self-assembling oligomer, An, is fused rigidly to one molecule of protein B, which forms another self-assembling oligomer, Bm. The result is a fusion protein, A-B, which self assembles with other identical copies of itself into a designed nanohedral particle or material, (A-B)p. The strategy is demonstrated through the design, production, and characterization of two fusion proteins: a 49-kDa protein designed to assemble into a cage approximately 15 nm across, and a 44-kDa protein designed to assemble into long filaments approximately 4 nm wide. The strategy opens a way to create a wide variety of potentially useful protein-based materials, some of which share similar features with natural biological assemblies.

Antioxidant Defenses in the Peripheral Cell Layers of Legume Root Nodules1

Ascorbate peroxidase (AP) is a key enzyme that scavenges potentially harmful H2O2 and thus prevents oxidative damage in plants, especially in N2-fixing legume root nodules. The present study demonstrates that the nodule endodermis of alfalfa (Medicago sativa) root nodules contains elevated levels of AP protein, as well as the corresponding mRNA transcript and substrate (ascorbate). Enhanced AP protein levels were also found in cells immediately peripheral to the infected region of soybean (Glycine max), pea (Pisum sativum), clover (Trifolium pratense), and common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) nodules. Regeneration of ascorbate was achieved by (homo)glutathione and associated enzymes of the ascorbate-glutathione pathway, which were present at high levels. The presence of high levels of antioxidants suggests that respiratory consumption of O2 in the endodermis or nodule parenchyma may be an essential component of the O2-diffusion barrier that regulates the entry of O2 into the central region of nodules and ensures optimal functioning of nitrogenase.

Retinal engineering: engrafted neural cell lines locate in appropriate layers.

A major question in central nervous system development, including the neuroretina, is whether migrating cells express cues to find their way and settle at specific locations. We have transplanted quail neuroretinal cell lines QNR/D, a putative amacrine or ganglion cell, and QNR/K2, a putative Müller cell into chicken embryo eyes. Implanted QNR/D cells migrate only to the retinal ganglion and amacrine cell layers and project neurites in the plane of retina; in contrast, QNR/K2 cells migrate through the ganglion and amacrine layers, locate in the inner nuclear layer, and project processes across the retina. These data show that QNR/D and QNR/K2 cell lines represent distinct neural cell types, suggesting that migrating neural cells express distinct address cues. Furthermore, our results raise the possibility that immortalized cell lines can be used for replacement of specific cell types and for the transport of genes to given locations in neuroretina.

Electrical investigation of p-type 4H-SiC heavily doped by ion implantation

In the last decades, an increasing interest in the research field of wide bandgap semiconductors was observed, mostly due to the progressive approaching of silicon-based devices to their theoretical limits. 4H-SiC is an example among these, and is a mature compound for applications. The main advantages offered 4H-SiC in comparison with silicon are an higher breakdown field, an higher thermal conductivity, a higher operating temperature, very high hardness and melting point, biocompatibility, but also low switching losses in high frequencies applications and lower on-resistances in unipolar devices. Then, 4H-SiC power devices offer great performance improvement; moreover, they can work in hostile environments where silicon power devices cannot function. Ion implantation technology is a key process in the fabrication of almost all kinds of SiC devices, owing to the advantage of a spatially selective doping. This work is dedicated to the electrical investigation of several differently-processed 4H-SiC ion- implanted samples, mainly through Hall effect and space charge spectroscopy experiments. It was also developed the automatic control (Labview) of several experiments. In the work, the effectiveness of high temperature post-implant thermal treatments (up to 2000°C) were studied and compared considering: (i) different methods, (ii) different temperatures and (iii) different duration of the annealing process. Preliminary p + /n and Schottky junctions were also investigated as simple test devices. 1) Heavy doping by ion implantation of single off-axis 4H-SiC layers The electrical investigation is one of the most important characterization of ion-implanted samples, which must be submitted to mandatory post-implant thermal treatment in order to both (i) recover the lattice after ion bombardment, and (ii) address the implanted impurities into lattice sites so that they can effectively act as dopants. Electrical investigation can give fundamental information on the efficiency of the electrical impurity activation. To understand the results of the research it should be noted that: (a) To realize good ohmic contacts it is necessary to obtain spatially defined highly doped regions, which must have conductivity as low as possible. (b) It has been shown that the electrical activation efficiency and the electrical conductivity increase with the annealing temperature increasing. (c) To maximize the layer conductivity, temperatures around 1700°C are generally used and implantation density high till to 10 21 cm -3 . In this work, an original approach, different from (c), is explored by the using very high annealing temperature, around 2000°C, on samples of Al + -implant concentration of the order of 10 20 cm -3 . Several Al + -implanted 4H-SiC samples, resulting of p-type conductivity, were investigated, with a nominal density varying in the range of about 1-5∙10 20 cm -3 and subjected to two different high temperature thermal treatments. One annealing method uses a radiofrequency heated furnace till to 1950°C (Conventional Annealing, CA), the other exploits a microwave field, providing a fast heating rate up to 2000°C (Micro-Wave Annealing, MWA). In this contest, mainly ion implanted p-type samples were investigated, both off-axis and on-axis <0001> semi-insulating 4H-SiC. Concerning p-type off-axis samples, a high electrical activation of implanted Al (50-70%) and a compensation ratio below 10% were estimated. In the work, the main sample processing parameters have been varied, as the implant temperature, CA annealing duration, and heating/cooling rates, and the best values assessed. MWA method leads to higher hole density and lower mobility than CA in equivalent ion implanted layers, resulting in lower resistivity, probably related to the 50°C higher annealing temperature. An optimal duration of the CA treatment was estimated in about 12-13 minutes. A RT resistivity on the lowest reported in literature for this kind of samples, has been obtained. 2) Low resistivity data: variable range hopping Notwithstanding the heavy p-type doping levels, the carrier density remained less than the critical one required for a semiconductor to metal transition. However, the high carrier densities obtained was enough to trigger a low temperature impurity band (IB) conduction. In the heaviest doped samples, such a conduction mechanism persists till to RT, without significantly prejudice the mobility values. This feature can have an interesting technological fall, because it guarantee a nearly temperature- independent carrier density, it being not affected by freeze-out effects. The usual transport mechanism occurring in the IB conduction is the nearest neighbor hopping: such a regime is effectively consistent with the resistivity temperature behavior of the lowest doped samples. In the heavier doped samples, however, a trend of the resistivity data compatible with a variable range hopping (VRH) conduction has been pointed out, here highlighted for the first time in p-type 4H-SiC. Even more: in the heaviest doped samples, and in particular, in those annealed by MWA, the temperature dependence of the resistivity data is consistent with a reduced dimensionality (2D) of the VRH conduction. In these samples, TEM investigation pointed out faulted dislocation loops in the basal plane, whose average spacing along the c-axis is comparable with the optimal length of the hops in the VRH transport. This result suggested the assignment of such a peculiar behavior to a kind of spatial confinement into a plane of the carrier hops. 3) Test device the p + -n junction In the last part of the work, the electrical properties of 4H-SiC diodes were also studied. In this case, a heavy Al + ion implantation was realized on n-type epilayers, according to the technological process applied for final devices. Good rectification properties was shown from these preliminary devices in their current-voltage characteristics. Admittance spectroscopy and deep level transient spectroscopy measurements showed the presence of electrically active defects other than the dopants ones, induced in the active region of the diodes by ion implantation. A critical comparison with the literature of these defects was performed. Preliminary to such an investigation, it was assessed the experimental set up for the admittance spectroscopy and current-voltage investigation and the automatic control of these measurements.

Oxide Semiconductors For Organic Opto-electronic Devices

Development of transparent oxide semiconductors (TOS) from Earth-abundant materials is of great interest for cost-effective thin film device applications, such as solar cells, light emitting diodes (LEDs), touch-sensitive displays, electronic paper, and transparent thin film transistors. The need of inexpensive or high performance electrode might be even greater for organic photovoltaic (OPV), with the goal to harvest renewable energy with inexpensive, lightweight, and cost competitive materials. The natural abundance of zinc and the wide bandgap ($sim$3.3 eV) of its oxide make it an ideal candidate. In this dissertation, I have introduced various concepts on the modulations of various surface, interface and bulk opto-electronic properties of ZnO based semiconductor for charge transport, charge selectivity and optimal device performance. I have categorized transparent semiconductors into two sub groups depending upon their role in a device. Electrodes, usually 200 to 500 nm thick, optimized for good transparency and transporting the charges to the external circuit. Here, the electrical conductivity in parallel direction to thin film, i.e bulk conductivity is important. And contacts, usually 5 to 50 nm thick, are optimized in case of solar cells for providing charge selectivity and asymmetry to manipulate the built in field inside the device for charge separation and collection. Whereas in Organic LEDs (OLEDs), contacts provide optimum energy level alignment at organic oxide interface for improved charge injections. For an optimal solar cell performance, transparent electrodes are designed with maximum transparency in the region of interest to maximize the light to pass through to the absorber layer for photo-generation, plus they are designed for minimum sheet resistance for efficient charge collection and transport. As such there is need for material with high conductivity and transparency. Doping ZnO with some common elements such as B, Al, Ga, In, Ge, Si, and F result in n-type doping with increase in carriers resulting in high conductivity electrode, with better or comparable opto-electronic properties compared to current industry-standard indium tin oxide (ITO). Furthermore, improvement in mobility due to improvement on crystallographic structure also provide alternative path for high conductivity ZnO TCOs. Implementing these two aspects, various studies were done on gallium doped zinc oxide (GZO) transparent electrode, a very promising indium free electrode. The dynamics of the superimposed RF and DC power sputtering was utilized to improve the microstructure during the thin films growth, resulting in GZO electrode with conductivity greater than 4000 S/cm and transparency greater than 90 %. Similarly, various studies on research and development of Indium Zinc Tin Oxide and Indium Zinc Oxide thin films which can be applied to flexible substrates for next generation solar cells application is presented. In these new TCO systems, understanding the role of crystallographic structure ranging from poly-crystalline to amorphous phase and the influence on the charge transport and optical transparency as well as important surface passivation and surface charge transport properties. Implementation of these electrode based on ZnO on opto-electronics devices such as OLED and OPV is complicated due to chemical interaction over time with the organic layer or with ambient. The problem of inefficient charge collection/injection due to poor understanding of interface and/or bulk property of oxide electrode exists at several oxide-organic interfaces. The surface conductivity, the work function, the formation of dipoles and the band-bending at the interfacial sites can positively or negatively impact the device performance. Detailed characterization of the surface composition both before and after various chemicals treatment of various oxide electrode can therefore provide insight into optimization of device performance. Some of the work related to controlling the interfacial chemistry associated with charge transport of transparent electrodes are discussed. Thus, the role of various pre-treatment on poly-crystalline GZO electrode and amorphous indium zinc oxide (IZO) electrode is compared and contrasted. From the study, we have found that removal of defects and self passivating defects caused by accumulation of hydroxides in the surface of both poly-crystalline GZO and amorphous IZO, are critical for improving the surface conductivity and charge transport. Further insight on how these insulating and self-passivating defects cause charge accumulation and recombination in an device is discussed. With recent rapid development of bulk-heterojunction organic photovoltaics active materials, devices employing ZnO and ZnO based electrode provide air stable and cost-competitive alternatives to traditional inorganic photovoltaics. The organic light emitting diodes (OLEDs) have already been commercialized, thus to follow in the footsteps of this technology, OPV devices need further improvement in power conversion efficiency and stable materials resulting in long device lifetimes. Use of low work function metals such as Ca/Al in standard geometry do provide good electrode for electron collection, but serious problems using low work-function metal electrodes originates from the formation of non-conductive metal oxide due to oxidation resulting in rapid device failure. Hence, using low work-function, air stable, conductive metal oxides such as ZnO as electrons collecting electrode and high work-function, air stable metals such as silver for harvesting holes, has been on the rise. Devices with degenerately doped ZnO functioning as transparent conductive electrode, or as charge selective layer in a polymer/fullerene based heterojunction, present useful device structures for investigating the functional mechanisms within OPV devices and a possible pathway towards improved air-stable high efficiency devices. Furthermore, analysis of the physical properties of the ZnO layers with varying thickness, crystallographic structure, surface chemistry and grain size deposited via various techniques such as atomic layer deposition, sputtering and solution-processed ZnO with their respective OPV device performance is discussed. We find similarity and differences in electrode property for good charge injection in OLEDs and good charge collection in OPV devices very insightful in understanding physics behind device failures and successes. In general, self-passivating surface of amorphous TCOs IZO, ZTO and IZTO forms insulating layer that hinders the charge collection. Similarly, we find modulation of the carrier concentration and the mobility in electron transport layer, namely zinc oxide thin films, very important for optimizing device performance.

Preparation of homogeneous CNT coatings in insulating capillary tubes by an innovative electrochemically-assisted method

Preparation of homogeneous CNT coatings in insulating silica capillary tubes is carried out by an innovative electrochemically-assisted method in which the driving force for the deposition is the change in pH inside the confined space between the inner electrode and the capillary walls. This method represents a great advancement in the development of CNT coatings following a simple, cost-effective methodology.