The State of Coral Reef Ecosystems of the United States and Pacific Freely Associated States: 2005

Executive Summary: For over three decades, scientists have been documenting the decline of coral reef ecosystems, amid increasing recognition of their value in supporting high biological diversity and their many benefits to human society. Coral reef ecosystems are recognized for their benefits on many levels, such as supporting economies by nurturing fisheries and providing for recreational and tourism opportunities, providing substances useful for medical purposes, performing essential ecosystem services that protect against coastal erosion, and provid-ing a diversity of other, more intangible contributions to many cultures. In the past decade, the increased awareness regarding coral reefs has prompted action by governmental and non-governmental organizations, including increased funding from the U.S. Congress for conservation of these important ecosystems and creation of the U.S. Coral Reef Task Force (USCRTF) to coordinate activities and implement conservation measures [Presidential Executive Order 13089]. Numerous partnerships forged among Federal agencies and state, local, non-governmental, academic and private partners support activities that range from basic science to systematic monitoring of ecosystem com-ponents and are conducted by government agencies, non-governmental organizations, universities, and the private sector. This report shares the results of many of these efforts in the framework of a broad assessment of the condition of coral reef ecosystems across 14 U.S. jurisdictions and Pacific Freely Associated States. This report relies heavily on quantitative, spatially-explicit data that has been collected in the recent past and comparisons with historical data, where possible. The success of this effort can be attributed to the dedication of over 160 report contributors who comprised the expert writing teams for each jurisdiction. The content of the report chapters are the result of their considerable collaborative efforts. The writing teams, which were organized by jurisdiction and comprised of experts from numerous research and management institutions, were provided a basic chapter outline and a length limit, but the content of each chapter was left entirely to their discretion. Each jurisdictional chapter in the report is structured to: 1) describe how each of the primary threats identified in the National Coral Reef Action Strategy (NCRAS) has manifested in the jurisdiction; 2) introduce ongoing monitoring and assessment activities relative to three major categories of inquiry – water quality, benthic habitats, and associated biological communities – and provide summary results in a data-rich format; and 3) highlight recent management activities that promote conservation of coral reef ecosystems.

Global Climate Change Impacts in the United States: a state of knowledge report from the U.S. Global Change Research Program

Executive Summary: Observations show that warming of the climate is unequivocal. The global warming observed over the past 50 years is due primarily to human-induced emissions of heat-trapping gases. These emissions come mainly from the burning of fossil fuels (coal, oil, and gas), with important contributions from the clearing of forests, agricultural practices, and other activities. Warming over this century is projected to be considerably greater than over the last century. The global average temperature since 1900 has risen by about 1.5ºF. By 2100, it is projected to rise another 2 to 11.5ºF. The U.S. average temperature has risen by a comparable amount and is very likely to rise more than the global average over this century, with some variation from place to place. Several factors will determine future temperature increases. Increases at the lower end of this range are more likely if global heat-trapping gas emissions are cut substantially. If emissions continue to rise at or near current rates, temperature increases are more likely to be near the upper end of the range. Volcanic eruptions or other natural variations could temporarily counteract some of the human-induced warming, slowing the rise in global temperature, but these effects would only last a few years. Reducing emissions of carbon dioxide would lessen warming over this century and beyond. Sizable early cuts in emissions would significantly reduce the pace and the overall amount of climate change. Earlier cuts in emissions would have a greater effect in reducing climate change than comparable reductions made later. In addition, reducing emissions of some shorter-lived heat-trapping gases, such as methane, and some types of particles, such as soot, would begin to reduce warming within weeks to decades. Climate-related changes have already been observed globally and in the United States. These include increases in air and water temperatures, reduced frost days, increased frequency and intensity of heavy downpours, a rise in sea level, and reduced snow cover, glaciers, permafrost, and sea ice. A longer ice-free period on lakes and rivers, lengthening of the growing season, and increased water vapor in the atmosphere have also been observed. Over the past 30 years, temperatures have risen faster in winter than in any other season, with average winter temperatures in the Midwest and northern Great Plains increasing more than 7ºF. Some of the changes have been faster than previous assessments had suggested. These climate-related changes are expected to continue while new ones develop. Likely future changes for the United States and surrounding coastal waters include more intense hurricanes with related increases in wind, rain, and storm surges (but not necessarily an increase in the number of these storms that make landfall), as well as drier conditions in the Southwest and Caribbean. These changes will affect human health, water supply, agriculture, coastal areas, and many other aspects of society and the natural environment. This report synthesizes information from a wide variety of scientific assessments (see page 7) and recently published research to summarize what is known about the observed and projected consequences of climate change on the United States. It combines analysis of impacts on various sectors such as energy, water, and transportation at the national level with an assessment of key impacts on specific regions of the United States. For example, sea-level rise will increase risks of erosion, storm surge damage, and flooding for coastal communities, especially in the Southeast and parts of Alaska. Reduced snowpack and earlier snow melt will alter the timing and amount of water supplies, posing significant challenges for water resource management in the West. (PDF contains 196 pages)

Alvará, por que Vossa Magestade ha por bem conceder aos Conservadores da Companhia Geral do Grão Pará, e Maranhão, a mesma jurisdicção de que goza o Conservador da Junta do Commercio destes Reinos, e seus domínios para se evitarem mais efficazmente os contrabandos, que se fazem à dita Companhia; determinando,que o producto das tomadias que se fizerem se applique ametade a favor dos denunciantes, e a outra ametade a favor da mesma Companhia; tudo na forma assima declarada : para Vossa Magestade ver / Joaquim José Borralho, o fez

Ao alto do título: Conde de Oeyras.

Instituição da Companhia Geral, do Grão Pará, e Maranhão

Contém o Alvará porque Vossa Magestade confirma os capítulos e condições da Companhia do Grão Pará e Maranhão, datado de 7 de junho de 1755 e feito por Antonio Joseph Galvão.

Alvará, por que V. Magestade he servido declarar que a todos os Ministtros, e Officiaes de Justiça, Fazenda, ou Guerra he permitido negocear por meio da Companhia Geral do Grão Pará, e Maranhão, e de quaesquer outras por V. Magestade confirmadas, e que não possão ser dados de suspeitos nas causas, e dependencias civeis, ou crimes respectivas às ditas Companhias, com o pretexto de terem acçoens nellas ; tudo na forma acima declarada : para Vossa Magestade ver / Filippe Joseph da Gama o fez

Ao alto do título: Sebastião Joseph de Carvalho e Mello.

Alvará, porque V. Magestade he servido declarar o parágrafo dezoito da Instituição da Companhia Geral do Grão Pará, e Maranhão : na forma, que nelle se contém : para V. Magestade ver : Filippe Joseph da Gama o fez

Ao alto do título: Sebastião Joseph de Carvalho e Mello.

Alvará, por que V. Magestade ha por bem ampliar os privilegios, que na Instituição da Junta da Administração da Companhia Geral do Grão Pará, e Maranhão, lhe tinha concedido; na forma, que nelle se declara : para Vossa Magestade ver / Joaquim Joseph Borralho o fez

Ao alto do título: Sebastião Joseph de Carvalho e Mello.

Alvará com força de Lei, por que V. Magestade ha por bem estabelecer, que da publicação delle em diante, os Administradores, Feitores, e Caixeiros, ou quaesquer outras pessoas, que servirem a Companhia Geral do Grão Pará, e Maranhão em qualquer dos Portos do Ultramar, não possão per si, ou por interpostas pessoas directa, ou indirectamente fazer commercio algum particular, ou interessar-se com as pessoas, que o fizerem, em quanto forem pagos, ou constituidos para o manejo do commercio geral da dita Companhia : tudo na forma assima declarada : para Vossa Magestade ver : José Thomás de Sá o fez

Ao alto do título: Sebastião Joseph de Carvalho e Mello.

Annaes historicos do Estado do Maranhão, em que se dá noticia do seu descobrimento, e tudo o mais que nelle tem succedido desde o anno em que foy descuberto até o de 1718offerecidos ao Augustissimo Monarca D. João V, Nosso Senhorescritos por Bernardo Pereira de Berredo

Os reis, tanto portugueses como espanhóis, variaram muito na determinação de impedir o cativeiro dos índios, até que, em 1741, o Papa Benedito XIV expediu uma bula proibindo terminantemente que qualquer pessoa, secular ou eclesiástica, possuísse como escravos os índio, sob pena de excomunhão latae sentiae.