Economic survey of the Caribbean 2008-2009

This survey provides an overview of the economic performance of countries of the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) for the year 2008 and their outlook for 2009. The report comprises three chapters. The first provides a regional comparative analysis of the main macroeconomic variables, namely GDP growth, inflation, fiscal and external accounts, as well as fiscal, monetary and other policies, particularly those specifically devised to cope with the ongoing global economic crisis. The second chapter deals with two topics relevant for economic development in the region: economic growth and small and medium enterprises development from an analytical and empirical perspective. The last chapter presents country briefs of the seven most developed countries (MDCs) in the Caribbean – Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Guyana, Jamaica, Suriname and Trinidad and Tobago – together with a subregional assessment of the eight member countries of the Eastern Caribbean Currency Union (ECCU).

Catches of Humpback Whales, Megaptera novaeangliae, by the Soviet Union and Other Nations in the Southern Ocean, 1947–1973

The great whales of the Southern Ocean were extensively exploited by modern whaling methods, with the first catches made in the Falkland Islands Dependencies region of IWC Management Area II in 1904 (Tønnesson and Johnsen, 1982; Hart, 2006). Exploitation went through several phases. Populations of humpback whales, Megaptera novaeangliae, and blue whales, Balaenoptera musculus, around South Georgia crashed around the time of World War I, and further exploitation occurred in other regions into the 1930’s. There was a hiatus in whaling during World War II, but large-scale catches resumed in Antarctic waters after 1945.

Spatial-temporal variations in phytoplankton size and colored detrital matter absorption at global and regional scales, as derived from twelve years of SeaWiFS data (1998-2009)

A procedure has been proposed by Ciotti and Bricaud (2006) to retrieve spectral absorption coefficients of phytoplankton and colored detrital matter (CDM) from satellite radiance measurements. This was also the first procedure to estimate a size factor for phytoplankton, based on the shape of the retrieved algal absorption spectrum, and the spectral slope of CDM absorption. Applying this method to the global ocean color data set acquired by SeaWiFS over twelve years (1998-2009), allowed for a comparison of the spatial variations of chlorophyll concentration ([Chl]), algal size factor (S-f), CDM absorption coefficient (a(cdm)) at 443 nm, and spectral slope of CDM absorption (S-cdm). As expected, correlations between the derived parameters were characterized by a large scatter at the global scale. We compared temporal variability of the spatially averaged parameters over the twelve-year period for three oceanic areas of biogeochemical importance: the Eastern Equatorial Pacific, the North Atlantic and the Mediterranean Sea. In all areas, both S-f and a(cdm)(443) showed large seasonal and interannual variations, generally correlated to those of algal biomass. The CDM maxima appeared in some occasions to last longer than those of [Chl]. The spectral slope of CDM absorption showed very large seasonal cycles consistent with photobleaching, challenging the assumption of a constant slope commonly used in bio-optical models. In the Equatorial Pacific, the seasonal cycles of [Chl], S-f, a(cdm)(443) and S-cdm, as well as the relationships between these parameters, were strongly affected by the 1997-98 El Ni o/La Ni a event.

Tendências da frequência do consumo de feijão por meio de inquérito telefônico nas capitais brasileiras, 2006 a 2009

Analisar a tendência da frequência do consumo do feijão nos anos de 2006 a 2009 nas capitais brasileiras. Trata-se de uma série histórica utilizando a base de dados do Vigitel de todas as capitais brasileiras. O consumo de feijão foi descrito por meio da frequência relativa e a tendência foi avaliada utilizando-se regressão de Poisson. O consumo de feijão cinco ou mais vezes por semana variou de 71,85% (2006) a 65,79 (2009). Na maior faixa de frequência de consumo ao longo de todo o período estudado estão incluídas as capitais Goiânia, Belo Horizonte, Palmas, Cuiabá e Brasília. As pessoas com IMC na categoria adequado/baixo peso apresentaram as maiores frequências de consumo em relação aos indivíduos com sobrepeso e obesidade. Foi observada tendência significativa de redução do consumo regular de feijão segundo ano de realização da pesquisa, exceto para a categoria de idade entre os 45 e 54 anos. Ocorreu redução significativa da frequência do consumo do feijão pela população brasileira e a adoção de políticas de monitoramento e incentivo do consumo é necessária em função dos benefícios apresentados pela leguminosa.

Adaptación de la Directiva Europea de Gestión de la Calidad de Aguas de Baño a las playas de Canarias

[ES] Hemos realizado una serie de consideraciones con respecto a la Directiva 2006/7/CE para lograr su correcta aplicación en las playas de baño de Canarias. En nuestras aguas se producen algunos fenómenos que no se producen en el resto de la Unión Europea. Por esta razón hemos establecido una serie de conceptos que no están previstos de forma explicita en los artículos de la Directiva y que, con algunas matizaciones, podremos adaptarlos a la generalidad de la Directiva, o ?sensu contrario?, adecuar la Directiva a nuestra realidad ambiental. En este sentido, hemos adaptado conceptos como ?contaminación de corta duración?, ?tendencia a la proliferación de macroalgas?, ?tendencia a la proliferación de fitoplancton marino?, ?proliferación de cianobacterias? y otros a las especificidades que se producen en nuestras costas y que podrían alterar la calidad de las aguas de baño

La dimensione giuridica della politica alimentare europea

La ricerca consiste nell’analisi degli elementi normativi che caratterizzano l’azione della Comunità in materia di alimenti. L’obiettivo è quello di verificare l’esistenza di un nucleo di principi comuni cui il legislatore comunitario si ispira nella ricerca di un equilibrio tra le esigenze di tutela della salute e quelle relative alla libera circolazione degli alimenti. Lo studio si apre con la ricostruzione storica delle principali fasi che hanno condotto alla definizione della politica comunitaria di sicurezza alimentare. Durante i primi anni del processo di integrazione europea, l’attenzione del legislatore comunitario si è concentrata sugli alimenti, esclusivamente in virtù della loro qualità di merci. La tutela della salute rimaneva nella sfera di competenza nazionale e le incursioni del legislatore comunitario in tale settore erano volte ad eliminare le divergenze normative suscettibili di rappresentare un ostacolo al commercio. Nella trattazione sono illustrati i limiti che un approccio normativo essenzialmente orientato alla realizzazione del mercato interno era in grado potenzialmente di creare sul sistema e che le vicende legate alle crisi alimentari degli anni Novanta hanno contribuito a rendere evidenti. Dall’urgenza di un coinvolgimento qualitativamente diverso della Comunità nelle tematiche alimentari, si è sviluppata progressivamente la necessità di una politica che fosse in grado di determinare un punto di equilibrio tra le esigenze di sicurezza alimentare e quelle della libera circolazione degli alimenti. Il risultato di tale processo di riflessione è stata l’adozione del Regolamento 178/2002 CE che stabilisce i principi e i requisiti generali della legislazione alimentare ed istituisce l’Autorità per la sicurezza alimentare. Nei capitoli successivi, è svolta un’analisi dettagliata delle innovazioni normative introdotte nell’ambito dell’azione comunitaria in materia di alimenti, con l’obiettivo di verificare se tale riforma abbia impresso alla formazione delle regole in materia di alimenti caratteristiche e specificità proprie. In particolare, vengono esaminate le finalità della politica alimentare comunitaria, evidenziando il ruolo centrale ormai assunto dalla tutela della salute rispetto al principio fondamentale della libera circolazione. Inoltre, l’analisi si concentra nell’identificazione del campo di applicazione materiale – la definizione di alimento – e personale – la definizione di impresa alimentare e di consumatore – della legislazione alimentare. Successivamente, l'analisi si concentra s sui principi destinati ad orientare l’attività normativa della Comunità e degli Stati membri nell’ambito del settore in precedenza individuato. Particolare attenzione viene dedicata allo studio dell’interazione tra l’attività di consulenza scientifica e la fase politico-decisionale, attraverso l’approfondimento del principio dell’analisi dei rischi, del principio di precauzione e del principio di trasparenza. Infine, l’analisi si conclude con lo studio di alcuni requisiti innovativi introdotti dal Regolamento 178 come la rintracciabilità degli alimenti, l’affermazione generale dell’esigenza di garantire la sicurezza dei prodotti e la responsabilità primaria degli operatori del settore alimentare. Il risultato del profondo ripensamento del sistema attuato con il Regolamento 178 é la progressiva individuazione di un quadro di principi e requisiti orizzontali destinati ad imprimere coerenza ed organicità all’azione della Comunità in materia di alimenti. Tale tendenza è inoltre confermata dalla giurisprudenza comunitaria che utilizza tali principi in chiave interpretativa ed analogica. Lo studio si conclude con alcune considerazioni di carattere generale, mettendo in luce la difficoltà di bilanciare le esigenze di protezione della salute con gli imperativi della libera di circolazione degli alimenti. Tale difficoltà dipende dalla natura di merce “complessa” dei prodotti alimentari nel senso che, accanto alla dimensione economica e commerciale, essi sono caratterizzati da un’importante dimensione sociale e culturale. L'indagine svolta mostra come nel settore considerato la ricerca di un equilibrio tra esigenze contrapposte ha prodotto una sostanziale centralizzazione della gestione della politica alimentare a livello europeo.

The changing politics of preference formation in international trade negotiations: the European Union in the Doha Round

This research seeks to provide an explanation for variations of “politics” of preference formation in international trade negotiations. Building on the ‘policy determines politics’ argument, I hypothesize the existence of a causal relationship between issue-characteristics and their variations with politics dynamics and their variations. More specifically, this study seeks to integrate into a single analytical framework two dimensions along which variations in the “politics of preference formation” can be organized: configurations of power relationships among the relevant actors in the structures within which they interact as well as the logic and the motivations of the actors involved in the policy making process. To do so, I first construct a four-cell typology of ‘politics of preference formation’ and, then, I proceed by specifying that the type of state-society configurations as well as the type of actors’ motivations in the “politics of preference formation” depend, respectively, on the degree to which a policy issue is perceived as politically salient and on the extent to which the distributional implications of such an issue can be calculated by the relevant stakeholders in the policy making process. The empirical yardstick against which the validity of the theoretical argument proposed is tested is drawn from evidence concerning the European Union’s negotiating strategy in four negotiating areas in the context of the so-called WTO’s Doha Development Round of multilateral trade negotiations: agriculture, competition, environment and technical assistance and capacity building.

Scienza, Tecnica, Politica: Il Problema del Metodo nel Pensiero di Jacopo Aconcio

The aim of this PhD thesis is to study accurately and in depth the figure and the literary production of the intellectual Jacopo Aconcio. This minor author of the 16th century has long been considered a sort of “enigmatic character”, a profile which results from the work of those who, for many centuries, have left his writing to its fate: a story of constant re-readings and equally incessant oversights. This is why it is necessary to re-read Aconcio’s production in its entirety and to devote to it a monographic study. Previous scholars’ interpretations will obviously be considered, but at the same time an effort will be made to go beyond them through the analysis of both published and manuscript sources, in the attempt to attain a deeper understanding of the figure of this man, who was a Christian, a military and hydraulic engineer and a political philosopher,. The title of the thesis was chosen to emphasise how, throughout the three years of the doctorate, my research concentrated in equal measure and with the same degree of importance on all the reflections and activities of Jacopo Aconcio. My object, in fact, was to establish how and to what extent the methodological thinking of the intellectual found application in, and at the same time guided, his theoretical and practical production. I did not mention in the title the author’s religious thinking, which has always been considered by everyone the most original and interesting element of his production, because religion, from the Reformation onwards, was primarily a political question and thus it was treated by almost all the authors involved in the Protestant movement - Aconcio in the first place. Even the remarks concerning the private, intimate sphere of faith have therefore been analysed in this light: only by acknowledging the centrality of the “problem of politics” in Aconcio’s theories, in fact, is it possible to interpret them correctly. This approach proves the truth of the theoretical premise to my research, that is to say the unity and orderliness of the author’s thought: in every field of knowledge, Aconcio applies the rules of the methodus resolutiva, as a means to achieve knowledge and elaborate models of pacific cohabitation in society. Aconcio’s continuous references to method can make his writing pedant and rather complex, but at the same time they allow for a consistent and valid analysis of different disciplines. I have not considered the fact that most of his reflections appear to our eyes as strongly conditioned by the time in which he lived as a limit. To see in him, as some have done, the forerunner of Descartes’ methodological discourse or, conversely, to judge his religious theories as not very modern, is to force the thought of an author who was first and foremost a Christian man of his own time. Aconcio repeats this himself several times in his writings: he wants to provide individuals with the necessary tools to reach a full-fledged scientific knowledge in the various fields, and also to enable them to seek truth incessantly in the religious domain, which is the duty of every human being. The will to find rules, instruments, effective solutions characterizes the whole of the author’s corpus: Aconcio feels he must look for truth in all the arts, aware as he is that anything can become science as long as it is analysed with method. Nevertheless, he remains a man of his own time, a Christian convinced of the existence of God, creator and governor of the world, to whom people must account for their own actions. To neglect this fact in order to construct a “character”, a generic forerunner, but not participant, of whatever philosophical current, is a dangerous and sidetracking operation. In this study, I have highlighted how Aconcio’s arguments only reveal their full meaning when read in the context in which they were born, without depriving them of their originality but also without charging them with meanings they do not possess. Through a historical-doctrinal approach, I have tried to analyse the complex web of theories and events which constitute the substratum of Aconcio’s reflection, in order to trace the correct relations between texts and contexts. The thesis is therefore organised in six chapters, dedicated respectively to Aconcio’s biography, to the methodological question, to the author’s engineering activity, to his historical knowledge and to his religious thinking, followed by a last section concerning his fortune throughout the centuries. The above-mentioned complexity is determined by the special historical moment in which the author lived. On the one hand, thanks to the new union between science and technique, the 16th century produces discoveries and inventions which make available a previously unthinkable number of notions and lead to a “revolution” in the way of studying and teaching the different subjects, which, by producing a new form of intellectual, involved in politics but also aware of scientific-technological issues, will contribute to the subsequent birth of modern science. On the other, the 16th century is ravaged by religious conflicts, which shatter the unity of the Christian world and generate theological-political disputes which will inform the history of European states for many decades. My aim is to show how Aconcio’s multifarious activity is the conscious fruit of this historical and religious situation, as well as the attempt of an answer to the request of a new kind of engagement on the intellectual’s behalf. Plunged in the discussions around methodus, employed in the most important European courts, involved in the abrupt acceleration of technical-scientific activities, and especially concerned by the radical religious reformation brought on by the Protestant movement, Jacopo Aconcio reflects this complex conjunction in his writings, without lacking in order and consistency, differently from what many scholars assume. The object of this work, therefore, is to highlight the unity of the author’s thought, in which science, technique, faith and politics are woven into a combination which, although it may appear illogical and confused, is actually tidy and methodical, and therefore in agreement with Aconcio’s own intentions and with the specific characters of European culture in the Renaissance. This theory is confirmed by the reading of the Ars muniendorum oppidorum, Aconcio’s only work which had been up till now unavailable. I am persuaded that only a methodical reading of Aconcio’s works, without forgetting nor glorifying any single one, respects the author’s will. From De methodo (1558) onwards, all his writings are summae, guides for the reader who wishes to approach the study of the various disciplines. Undoubtedly, Satan’s Stratagems (1565) is something more, not only because of its length, but because it deals with the author’s main interest: the celebration of doubt and debate as bases on which to build religious tolerance, which is the best method for pacific cohabitation in society. This, however, does not justify the total centrality which the Stratagems have enjoyed for centuries, at the expense of a proper understanding of the author’s will to offer examples of methodological rigour in all sciences. Maybe it is precisely because of the reforming power of Aconcio’s thought that, albeit often forgotten throughout the centuries, he has never ceased to reappear and continues to draw attention, both as a man and as an author. His ideas never stop stimulating the reader’s curiosity and this may ultimately be the best demonstration of their worth, independently from the historical moment in which they come back to the surface.

Perceptual maps analysis for organic food consumers in China: a study on Shanghai consumers

Although in Europe and in the USA many studies focus on organic, little is known on the topic in China. This research provides an insight on Shanghai consumers’ perception of organic, aiming at understanding and representing in graphic form the network of mental associations that stems from the organic concept. To acquire, process and aggregate the individual networks it was used the “Brand concept mapping” methodology (Roedder et al., 2006), while the data analysis was carried out also using analytic procedures. The results achieved suggest that organic food is perceived as healthy, safe and costly. Although these attributes are pretty much consistent with the European perception, some relevant differences emerged. First, organic is not necessarily synonymous with natural product in China, also due to a poor translation of the term in the Chinese language that conveys the idea of a manufactured product. Secondly, the organic label has to deal with the competition with the green food label in terms of image and positioning on the market, since they are easily associated and often confused. “Environmental protection” also emerged as relevant association, while the ethical and social values were not mentioned. In conclusion, health care and security concerns are the factors that influence most the food consumption in China (many people are so concerned about food safety that they found it difficult to shop), and the associations “Safe”, “Pure and natural”, “without chemicals” and “healthy” have been identified as the best candidates for leveraging a sound image of organic food .

Le politiche giudiziarie inglesi degli anni 2000: mutamento di paradigma e rafforzamento dell'incisività politica dei giudici

The Ph.D. dissertation analyses the reasons for which political actors (governments, legislatures and political parties) decide consciously to give away a source of power by increasing the political significance of the courts. It focuses on a single case of particular significance: the passage of the Constitutional Reform Act 2005 in the United Kingdom. This Act has deeply changed the governance and the organization of the English judicial system, has provided a much clearer separation of powers and a stronger independence of the judiciary from the executive and the legislative. What’s more, this strengthening of the judicial independence has been decided in a period in which the political role of the English judges was evidently increasing. I argue that the reform can be interpreted as a «paradigm shift» (Hall 1993), that has changed the way in which the judicial power is considered. The most diffused conceptions in the sub-system of the English judicial policies are shifted, and a new paradigm has become dominant. The new paradigm includes: (i) stronger separation of powers, (ii) collective (as well as individual) conception of the independence of the judiciary, (iii) reduction of the political accountability of the judges, (iv) formalization of the guarantees of judicial independence, (v) principle-driven (instead of pragmatic) approach to the reforms, and (vi) transformation of a non-codified constitution in a codified one. Judicialization through political decisions represent an important, but not fully explored, field of research. The literature, in particular, has focused on factors unable to explain the English case: the competitiveness of the party system (Ramseyer 1994), the political uncertainty at the time of constitutional design (Ginsburg 2003), the cultural divisions within the polity (Hirschl 2004), federal institutions and division of powers (Shapiro 2002). All these contributes link the decision to enhance the political relevance of the judges to some kind of diffusion of political power. In the contemporary England, characterized by a relative high concentration of power in the government, the reasons for such a reform should be located elsewhere. I argue that the Constitutional Reform Act 2005 can be interpreted as a result of three different kinds of reasons: (i) the social and demographical transformations of the English judiciary, which have made inefficient most of the precedent mechanism of governance, (ii) the role played by the judges in the policy process and (iii) the cognitive and normative influences originated from the European context, as a consequence of the membership of the United Kingdom to the European Union and the Council of Europe. My thesis is that only a full analysis of all these three aspects can explain the decision to reform the judicial system and the content of the Constitutional Reform Act 2005. Only the cultural influences come from the European legal complex, above all, can explain the paradigm shift previously described.

I principi generali della politica energetica europea

La tesi analizza i collegamenti tra la dimensione interna e la dimensione esterna del diritto europeo dell’energia al fine valutare l’efficacia e la coerenza della politica energetica europea in un approccio realmente globale ed integrato. Lo scopo della ricerca è quello di interrogarsi sull’evoluzione della competenza dell’Unione in tema di energia e su quale possa essere il suo contributo allo studio del diritto dell’Unione. L’analisi mira a chiarire i principi cardine della politica energetica europea ed i limiti che incontra l’azione dell’Unione nella disciplina dei settori energetici. Nonostante la centralità e l’importanza dell’energia, tanto per il buon funzionamento del mercato interno, quanto per la protezione dell’ambiente e per la sicurezza internazionale, la ricerca ha riscontrato come manchi ancora in dottrina una sufficiente elaborazione dell’energia in chiave organica e sistematica. L’analisi è svolta in quattro capitoli, ciascuno dei quali è suddiviso in due sezioni. Lo studio si apre con l’indagine sulla competenza energetica dell’Unione, partendo dai trattati settoriali (CECA ed Euratom) fino ad arrivare all’analisi delle disposizioni contenute nel Trattato di Lisbona che prevedono una base giuridica ad hoc (art. 194 TFUE) per l’energia. Lo scopo del primo capitolo è quello di fornire un inquadramento teorico alla materia, analizzando le questioni riguardanti l’origine del ‘paradosso energetico’ ed i limiti della competenza energetica dell’Unione, con un sguardo retrospettivo che tenga conto del dinamismo evolutivo che ha caratterizzato il diritto europeo dell’energia. Nel corso del secondo capitolo, la ricerca analizza l’impatto del processo di liberalizzazione sulla struttura dei mercati dell’elettricità e del gas con la graduale apertura degli stessi al principio della libera concorrenza. L’analisi conduce ad una ricognizione empirica sulle principali categorie di accordi commerciali utilizzate nei settori energetici; la giurisprudenza della Corte sulla compatibilità di tali accordi rispetto al diritto dell’Unione mette in evidenza il difficile bilanciamento tra la tutela della sicurezza degli approvvigionamenti e la tutela del corretto funzionamento del mercato interno. L’applicazione concreta del diritto antitrust rispetto alle intese anticoncorrenziali ed all’abuso di posizione dominante dimostra la necessità di tener conto dei continui mutamenti indotti dal processo di integrazione dei mercati dell’elettricità e del gas. Il terzo capitolo introduce la dimensione ambientale della politica energetica europea, sottolineando alcune criticità relative alla disciplina normativa sulle fonti rinnovabili, nonché gli ostacoli al corretto funzionamento del mercato interno delle quote di emissione, istituito dalla legislazione europea sulla lotta ai cambiamenti climatici. I diversi filoni giurisprudenziali, originatisi dalle controversie sull’applicazione delle quote di emissioni, segnalano le difficoltà ed i limiti della ‘sperimentazione legislativa’ adottata dal legislatore europeo per imporre, attraverso il ricorso a strumenti di mercato, obblighi vincolanti di riduzione delle emissioni inquinanti che hanno come destinatari, non solo gli Stati, ma anche i singoli. Infine, il quarto ed ultimo capitolo, affronta il tema della sicurezza energetica. Nel corso del capitolo vengono effettuate considerazioni critiche sulla mancanza di collegamenti tra la dimensione interna e la dimensione esterna del diritto europeo dell’energia, evidenziando i limiti all’efficacia ed alla coerenza dell’azione energetica dell’Unione. L’inquadramento teorico e normativo della dimensione estera della politica energetica europea tiene conto del processo di allargamento e della creazione del mercato interno dell’energia, ma viene inserito nel più ampio contesto delle relazioni internazionali, fondate sul delicato rapporto tra i Paesi esportatori ed i Paesi importatori di energia. Sul piano internazionale, l’analisi ricostruisce la portata ed i limiti del principio di interdipendenza energetica. Lo studio si concentra sulle disposizioni contenute nei trattati internazionale di cooperazione energetica, con particolare riferimento ai diversi meccanismi di risoluzione delle controversie in tema di protezione degli investimenti sull’energia. Sul piano interno, la ricerca pone in evidenza l’incapacità dell’Unione di ‘parlare con una sola voce’ in tema di sicurezza energetica a causa della contrapposizione degli interessi tra i vecchi ed i nuovi Stati membri rispetto alla conclusione degli accordi di fornitura di lunga durata con i Paesi produttori di gas. Alla luce delle nuove disposizioni del Trattato di Lisbona, il principio solidaristico viene interpretato come limite agli interventi unilaterali degli Stati membri, consentendo il ricorso ai meccanismi comunitari previsti dalla disciplina sul mercato interno dell’elettricità e del gas, anche in caso di grave minaccia alla sicurezza degli approvvigionamenti energetici.