The body matters: Understanding social differences in mental health

This doctoral dissertation illuminates the salience of body image to sociological investigations of mental health. It is argued that concerns over body-appearance evident in America embody a dimension of distress over the physical self that may be appropriately considered a mental health outcome, called body dysphoria. Using cross-sectional data on 1,183 young adults comprising Hispanic, African American, and non-Hispanic white males and females from varying social classes, a valid and reliable measure of body dysphoria is developed and demonstrated to be a distinct dimension of psychological distress. ^ From the standpoint of the sociology of mental health, the social distribution of body dysphoria makes known individual consequences of the stratified arrangements of society based on gender, race/ethnicity, and social class. Results reveal significant social differences in body dysphoria that are both consistent with and contrary to clinical studies attributing eating disorders to white, upper-class females. Body dysphoria is substantially greater among females supporting that unrealistic cultural ideals and standards of body-appearance remain disproportionately targeted at females in the development and presentation of self. Compared to non-Hispanic whites, Hispanics exhibit higher average levels of body dysphoria while African Americans exhibit lower levels of comparable proportion. The question is addressed whether identification with the dominant (white) culture influences distress over body-appearance among racial/ethnic minorities. A small inverse association is revealed between social class origin and body dysphoria suggesting that individuals from lower social class backgrounds are as greatly affected by body image concerns generally presumed to preoccupy upper social classes. ^ The stress process is a widely used theoretical paradigm for explaining structurally driven social differences in mental health outcomes. New evidence is introduced that the stress process may contribute to understanding body image problems. Regression analyses reveal that stress exposure has a significant positive association with body dysphoria that is mediated by varying psychosocial resources. Overall, the stress process explains the effects of social class origin and African American race/ethnicity on body dysphoria but does not account for the larger effects of being female or Hispanic. ^

Sintomatologia depressiva e sono

Os comportamentos depressivos são cada vez mais evidentes na sociedade atual e ocorrem normalmente, a partir da adolescência, sendo a sua incidência maior nas mulheres. Esses comportamentos, que se traduzem em sintomatologia depressiva interferem com vários aspetos do ser humano, desde a sua imagem corporal, aos seus estados nutricional e psicológico, até ao seu estado de saúde em geral, e ao seu padrão de sono. Este trabalho procura explorar as relações entre os hábitos e a qualidade do sono e a sintomatologia depressiva. Foram avaliados 100 profissionais de saúde com horários de trabalho irregulares e com idades compreendidas entre os 20 e os 65 anos : 54 do sexo feminino e 46 do sexo masculino. Aplicou-se um questionário onde se recolheram os seguintes dados: IMC, horário de trabalho, alimentação, consumo de substâncias estimulantes, sintomatologia depressiva, sonolência diurna e qualidade do sono. Relativamente ao IMC verificou-se que 44% dos inquiridos apresenta excesso de peso e 2% já se encontra em Obesidade grau I. Relativamente ao horário de trabalho, 74 % dos inquiridos referiu o turno da manhã como sendo o seu preferencial e 59% disse que o trabalho por turnos que não era vantajoso. Na avaliação da interferência do horário de trabalho por turnos nas diversas atividades extra profissionais verificou-se que quanto ao tempo de lazer 72 % dos inquiridos disse que interfere muito, na vida social e familiar 78 % dos inquiridos diz que interfere muito, nas atividades pessoais 60 % dos inquiridos disse que interfere muito e na alimentação 83 % dos inquiridos diz que interfere muito. Ainda na alimentação, verificou-se que 52% dos inquiridos acha que o tempo que tem disponível não é adequado a uma boa refeição pelo que se verificou uma frequência das refeições irregular nomeadamente ao pequeno almoço, que apenas 47% disse sempre tomar. Relativamente ao consumo de substâncias estimulantes a mais consumida é o café, uma vez que mais de metade (53%) dos inquiridos diz tomar sempre, segue-se o consumo de tabaco, o qual 44% dos inquiridos disse consumir sempre. Quanto ao exercício físico 68% dos inquiridos disse não praticar. Na presença de sintomatologia depressiva, verifica-se que a maior parte dos inquiridos (68%; n=68) apresenta uma sintomatologia depressiva mínima, 24% apresenta depressão ligeira e 8% (n=8) apresenta depressão moderada. A determinação da sonolência diurna, verifica-se que 28% (n=28) dos inquiridos apresenta pouca sonolência diurna, 65% apresenta moderada sonolência diurna e 7% apresenta Sonolência diurna excessiva. Quanto á qualidade do sono, verifica-se que 18 % dos inquiridos tem uma boa qualidade de sono, 53 % tem sono de má qualidade e 29% dos inquiridos apresenta distúrbio de sono. Estas evidências levaram a concluir que existe uma forte relação ente o sono e a sintomatologia depressiva, e que o horário de trabalho por turnos interfere na qualidade de vida dos indivíduos, sendo que a única forma de intervir está na prevenção, incentivando os trabalhadores a hábitos de vida saudáveis e a um controlo periódico do seu estado de saúde.

The new world of work and employment: fitness workers and what they want from the employment relationship

This paper reports on an empirically based study of the Queensland (Australia) health and fitness industry over 15 years (1993 -2008). This study traces the development of the new occupation of fitness instructor in a service industry which has evolved si nce the 1980s and is embedded in values of consumption and individualism. It is the new world of work. The data from the 1993 study was historically significant, capturing the conditions o f employment in an unregulated setting prior to the introduction of the first industrial a ward in that industry in 1994. Fitness workers bargained directly with employers over all a spects of the employment relationship without the constraints of industrial regulation or the presence of trade unions. The substantive outcomes of the employment relationship were a direct reflection of m anagerial prerogative and worker orientation and preference, and did not reflect the rewards and outcomes traditionally found in Australian workplaces. While the focus of the 1993 research was on exploring the employment relationship in a deregulated environment, an unusual phenomenon was identified: fitness workers happily trading-off what would be considere d standard working conditions for the opportunity to work (‘take the stage’). Since then, several streams of literature have evolved providing a new context for understanding this phenomenon in the fitness industry, including: the sociology of the body (Shilling 1993; Turner 1996); emotional (Hochschild 1984) and aesthetic labour (Warhurst et al 2000); the so cial relations of production and space (Lefebvre 1991; Moss 1995); body history (Helps 2007); the sociology of consumption (Saunders 1988; Baudrillard 1998; Ritzer 2004); and work identity (Du Gay 1996; Strangleman 2004). The 2008 survey instrument replicated the 1993 study but was additionally informed b y the new literature. Surveys were sent to 310 commercial fitness centres and 4,800 fitness workers across Queensland. Worker orientation appears unchanged, and industry working conditions still seem atypical despite regulation si nce 1994. We argue that for many fitness workers the goal is to gain access to the fitness centre economy. For this they are willing to trade-off standard conditions of employment, and exchange traditional employm ent rewards for m ore intrinsic psycho-social rewards gained the through e xp o sure of their physical capital (Bourdieu 1984) o r bo dily prowess to the adoration o f their gazing clients. Building on the tradition of emotional labour and aesthetic labour, this study introduces the concept of ocularcentric labour: a state in which labour’s quest for the psychosocial rewards gained from their own body image shapes the employment relationship. With ocularcentric labour the p sycho-social rewards have greater value for the worker than ‘hard’, core conditions of employment, and are a significant factor in bargaining and outcomes, often substituting fo r direct earnings. The wo rkforce profile (young, female, casual) and their expectations (psycho-social rewards of ado ration and celebrity) challenge traditional trade unions in terms of what they can deliver, given the fitness workers’ willingness to trade-off minimum conditions, hard-won by unions.

Identifying with an avatar : a multidisciplinary perspective

Avatars perform a complex range of inter-related functions. They not only allow us to express a digital identity, they facilitate the expression of physical motility and, through non-verbal expression, help to mediate social interaction in networked environments. When well designed, they can contribute to a sense of “presence” (a sense of being there) and a sense of “co-presence” (a sense of being there with others) in digital space. Because of this complexity, the study of avatars can be enriched by theoretical insights from a range of disciplines. This paper considers avatars from the perspectives of critical theory, visual communication, and art theory (on portraiture) to help elucidate the role of avatars as an expression of identity. It goes on to argue that identification with an avatar is also produced through their expression of motility and discusses the benefits of film theory for explaining this process. Conceding the limits of this approach, the paper draws on philosophies of body image, Human Computer Interaction (HCI) theory on embodied interaction, and fields as diverse as dance to explain the sense of identification, immersion, presence and co-presence that avatars can produce.

Peripheral ocular monochromatic aberrations

Aberrations affect image quality of the eye away from the line of sight as well as along it. High amounts of lower order aberrations are found in the peripheral visual field and higher order aberrations change away from the centre of the visual field. Peripheral resolution is poorer than that in central vision, but peripheral vision is important for movement and detection tasks (for example driving) which are adversely affected by poor peripheral image quality. Any physiological process or intervention that affects axial image quality will affect peripheral image quality as well. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of accommodation, myopia, age, and refractive interventions of orthokeratology, laser in situ keratomileusis and intraocular lens implantation on the peripheral aberrations of the eye. This is the first systematic investigation of peripheral aberrations in a variety of subject groups. Peripheral aberrations can be measured either by rotating a measuring instrument relative to the eye or rotating the eye relative to the instrument. I used the latter as it is much easier to do. To rule out effects of eye rotation on peripheral aberrations, I investigated the effects of eye rotation on axial and peripheral cycloplegic refraction using an open field autorefractor. For axial refraction, the subjects fixated at a target straight ahead, while their heads were rotated by ±30º with a compensatory eye rotation to view the target. For peripheral refraction, the subjects rotated their eyes to fixate on targets out to ±34° along the horizontal visual field, followed by measurements in which they rotated their heads such that the eyes stayed in the primary position relative to the head while fixating at the peripheral targets. Oblique viewing did not affect axial or peripheral refraction. Therefore it is not critical, within the range of viewing angles studied, if axial and peripheral refractions are measured with rotation of the eye relative to the instrument or rotation of the instrument relative to the eye. Peripheral aberrations were measured using a commercial Hartmann-Shack aberrometer. A number of hardware and software changes were made. The 1.4 mm range limiting aperture was replaced by a larger aperture (2.5 mm) to ensure all the light from peripheral parts of the pupil reached the instrument detector even when aberrations were high such as those occur in peripheral vision. The power of the super luminescent diode source was increased to improve detection of spots passing through the peripheral pupil. A beam splitter was placed between the subjects and the aberrometer, through which they viewed an array of targets on a wall or projected on a screen in a 6 row x 7 column matrix of points covering a visual field of 42 x 32. In peripheral vision, the pupil of the eye appears elliptical rather than circular; data were analysed off-line using custom software to determine peripheral aberrations. All analyses in the study were conducted for 5.0 mm pupils. Influence of accommodation on peripheral aberrations was investigated in young emmetropic subjects by presenting fixation targets at 25 cm and 3 m (4.0 D and 0.3 D accommodative demands, respectively). Increase in accommodation did not affect the patterns of any aberrations across the field, but there was overall negative shift in spherical aberration across the visual field of 0.10 ± 0.01m. Subsequent studies were conducted with the targets at a 1.2 m distance. Young emmetropes, young myopes and older emmetropes exhibited similar patterns of astigmatism and coma across the visual field. However, the rate of change of coma across the field was higher in young myopes than young emmetropes and was highest in older emmetropes amongst the three groups. Spherical aberration showed an overall decrease in myopes and increase in older emmetropes across the field, as compared to young emmetropes. Orthokeratology, spherical IOL implantation and LASIK altered peripheral higher order aberrations considerably, especially spherical aberration. Spherical IOL implantation resulted in an overall increase in spherical aberration across the field. Orthokeratology and LASIK reversed the direction of change in coma across the field. Orthokeratology corrected peripheral relative hypermetropia through correcting myopia in the central visual field. Theoretical ray tracing demonstrated that changes in aberrations due to orthokeratology and LASIK can be explained by the induced changes in radius of curvature and asphericity of the cornea. This investigation has shown that peripheral aberrations can be measured with reasonable accuracy with eye rotation relative to the instrument. Peripheral aberrations are affected by accommodation, myopia, age, orthokeratology, spherical intraocular lens implantation and laser in situ keratomileusis. These factors affect the magnitudes and patterns of most aberrations considerably (especially coma and spherical aberration) across the studied visual field. The changes in aberrations across the field may influence peripheral detection and motion perception. However, further research is required to investigate how the changes in aberrations influence peripheral detection and motion perception and consequently peripheral vision task performance.

Physical inactivity, appetite regulation and obesity

In a consumerist society obsessed with body image and thinness, obesity levels have reached an all-time high. This multi-faceted book written by a range of experts, explores the social, cultural, clinical and psychological factors that lie behind the Obesity Epidemic . It is required reading for the many healthcare professionals dealing with the effects of obesity and for anyone who wants to know more about the causes of weight gain and the best ways of dealing with it. Fat Matters covers a range of issues from sociology through medicine to technology. This is not a book for the highly specialised expert. Rather it is a book that shows the diversity of approaches to the phenomenon of obesity, tailored to the reader who wants to be up-to-date and well-informed on a subject that is possibly as frequently discussed and as misunderstood as the weather.

Talkin' up sport and gender : Three Australian Aboriginal women speak

This paper presents the perspectives from three Aboriginal women on body image, sport and physical activity within Australian contemporary society. It draws on a range of literature along with artworks from visual artist Pamela Croft.

Everything is child abuse

In 2008, the Australian federal Senate held an Inquiry into the Sexualisation of Children in the Contemporary Media Environment. I made a submission to this Inquiry, noting that in public debate about this topic a number of quite distinct issues, with distinct aetiologies, were collapsed together. These included: child pornography; children being targeted by any form of marketing; young people becoming sexually active; sexual abuse of children; raunch culture; protecting children from any sexualised material in the media; and body image disorders. I suggested that commentators had collapsed these issues together because the image of the helpless child is a powerful one for critics to challenge undesirable aspects of contemporary culture. The result of many different ideological viewpoints all using the same argument - that the forms of culture they didn't like were damaging children - gives the impression that there is no element of culture today that isn't (somebody claims) causing harm to children: everything is child abuse. The danger of such discourses is that they draw attention away from the real harm that is being caused to children by sexual and other forms of maltreatment - which overwhelmingly occur within families, and for reasons ignored in these debates.

Ocularcentric labour : ‘you don’t do this for money’

Building on the tradition of emotional labour and aesthetic labour, this study of fitness workers introduces the concept of “ocularcentric labour” (the worker seeking the adoring gaze of the client as the primary reward). It is a state in which labour’s quest for the psycho-social rewards gained from their own body image shapes the employment relationship (both the organization of work and the conditions of employment). We argue that for many fitness workers the goal is to gain access to the positional economy of the fitness centre to promote their celebrity. For this they are willing to trade-off standard conditions of employment, and exchange traditional employment rewards for the more intrinsic psycho-social rewards gained through the exposure of their physical capital to the adoration of their gazing clients. Significantly, with ocularcentric labour the worker becomes both the site of production and consumption.