Entwicklung und Charakterisierung eines Drop-on-Demand-Aerosolgenerators für die Probenzuführung kleinster Flüssigkeitsmengen in der analytischen Atomspektroskopie

Die pneumatische Zerstäubung ist die häufigste Methode der Probenzuführung von Flüssigkeiten in der Plasmaspektrometrie. Trotz der bekannten Limitierungen dieser Systeme, wie die hohen Probenverluste, finden diese Zerstäuber aufgrund ihrer guten Robustheit eine breite Anwendung. Die flussratenabhängige Aerosolcharakteristik und pumpenbasierte Signalschwankungen limitieren bisher Weiterentwicklungen. Diese Probleme werden umso gravierender, je weiter die notwendige Miniaturisierung dieser Systeme fortschreitet. Der neuartige Ansatz dieser Arbeit basiert auf dem Einsatz modifizierter Inkjet-Druckerpatronen für die Dosierung von pL-Tropfen. Ein selbst entwickelter Mikrokontroller ermöglicht den Betrieb von matrixkodierten Patronen des Typs HP45 mit vollem Zugriff auf alle essentiellen Betriebsparameter. Durch die neuartige Aerosoltransportkammer gelang die effiziente Kopplung des Tropfenerzeugungssystems an ein ICP-MS. Das so aufgebaute drop-on-demand-System (DOD) zeigt im Vergleich zu herkömmlichen und miniaturisierten Zerstäubern eine deutlich gesteigerte Empfindlichkeit (8 - 18x, elementabhängig) bei leicht erhöhtem, aber im Grunde vergleichbarem Signalrauschen. Darüber hinaus ist die Flexibilität durch die große Zahl an Freiheitsgraden des Systems überragend. So ist die Flussrate über einen großen Bereich variabel (5 nL - 12,5 µL min-1), ohne dabei die primäre Aerosolcharakteristik zu beeinflussen, welche vom Nutzer durch Wahl der elektrischen Parameter bestimmt wird. Das entwickelte Probenzuführungssystem ist verglichen mit dem pneumatischen Referenzsystem weniger anfällig gegenüber Matrixeffekten beim Einsatz von realen Proben mit hohen Anteilen gelöster Substanzen. So gelingt die richtige Quantifizierung von fünf Metallen im Spurenkonzentrationsbereich (Li, Sr, Mo, Sb und Cs) in nur 12 µL Urin-Referenzmaterial mittels externer Kalibrierung ohne Matrixanpassung. Wohingegen beim pneumatischen Referenzsystem die aufwändigere Standardadditionsmethode sowie über 250 µL Probenvolumen für eine akkurate Bestimmung der Analyten nötig sind. Darüber hinaus wird basierend auf der Dosierfrequenz eines dualen DOD-Systems eine neuartige Kalibrierstrategie vorgestellt. Bei diesem Ansatz werden nur eine Standard- und eine Blindlösung anstelle einer Reihe unterschiedlich konzentrierter Standards benötigt, um eine lineare Kalibrierfunktion zu erzeugen. Zusätzlich wurde mittels selbst entwickelter, zeitlich aufgelöster ICP-MS umfangreiche Rauschspektren aufgenommen. Aus diesen gelang die Ermittlung der Ursache des erhöhten Signalrauschens des DOD, welches maßgeblich durch das zeitlich nicht äquidistante Eintreffen der Tropfen am Detektor verursacht wird. Diese Messtechnik erlaubt auch die Detektion einzeln zugeführter Tropfen, wodurch ein Vergleich der Volumenverteilung der mittels ICP-MS detektierten, gegenüber den generierten und auf optischem Wege charakterisierten Tropfen möglich wurde. Dieses Werkzeug ist für diagnostische Untersuchungen äußerst hilfreich. So konnte aus diesen Studien neben der Aufklärung von Aerosoltransportprozessen die Transporteffizienz des DOD ermittelt werden, welche bis zu 94 Vol.-% beträgt.

UV laser-induced high resolution cleaving of Si wafers for micro-nano devices and polymeric waveguide characterization

In this work we propose a method for cleaving silicon-based photonic chips by using a laser based micromachining system, consisting of a ND:YVO4laser emitting at 355 nm in nanosecond pulse regime and a micropositioning system. The laser makes grooved marks placed at the desired locations and directions where cleaves have to be initiated, and after several processing steps, a crack appears and propagate along the crystallographic planes of the silicon wafer. This allows cleavage of the chips automatically and with high positioning accuracy, and provides polished vertical facets with better quality than the obtained with other cleaving process, which eases the optical characterization of photonic devices. This method has been found to be particularly useful when cleaving small-sized chips, where manual cleaving is hard to perform; and also for polymeric waveguides, whose facets get damaged or even destroyed with polishing or manual cleaving processing. Influence of length of the grooved line and speed of processing is studied for a variety of silicon chips. An application for cleaving and characterizing sol–gel waveguides is presented. The total amount of light coupled is higher than when using any other procedure.

Tailoring the Optical Properties of Silica Irradiated with Swift Heavy Ions

Irradiation with swift heavy ions (SHI), roughly defined as those having atomic masses larger than 15 and energies exceeding 1 MeV/amu, may lead to significant modification of the irradiated material in a nanometric region around the (straight) ion trajectory (i.e., latent tracks). In the case of amorphous silica it has been reported that SHI irradiation originates nano-tracks of either higher density than the virgin material (for low electronic stopping powers, Se < 7 keV/nm) [1] or having a low-density core and a dense shell (Se > 12 keV/nm) [2]. The intermediate region has not been studied in detail but we will show in this work that essentially no changes in density occur in this zone. An interesting effect of the compaction is that the refractive index is increased with respect to that of the surroundings. In the first Se region it is clear that track overlapping leads to continuous amorphous layers that present a significant contrast with respect to the pristine substrate and this has been used to produce optical waveguides. The optical effects of intermediate and high stopping powers, on the other hand, are largely unknown so far. In this work we have studied theoretically (molecular dynamics and optical simulations) and experimentally (irradiation with SHI and optical characterization) the dependence of the macroscopic optical properties (i.e., the refractive index of the effective medium, n_EMA) on the electronic stopping power of the incoming ions. Our results show that the refractive index of the irradiated silica is not increased in the intermediate region, as expected; however, the core-shell tracks of the high-Se region produce a quite effective enhancement of n_EMA that could prove attractive for the fabrication of optical waveguides at ultralow fluences (as low as 1E11 cm^-2). 1. J. Manzano, J. Olivares, F. Agulló-López, M. L. Crespillo, A. Moroño, and E. Hodgson, "Optical waveguides obtained by swift-ion irradiation on silica (a-SiO2)," Nucl. Instrum. Meth. B 268, 3147-3150 (2010). 2. P. Kluth, C. S. Schnohr, O. H. Pakarinen, F. Djurabekova, D. J. Sprouster, R. Giulian, M. C. Ridgway, A. P. Byrne, C. Trautmann, D. J. Cookson, K. Nordlund, and M. Toulemonde, "Fine structure in swift heavy ion tracks in amorphous SiO2," Phys. Rev. Lett. 101, 175503 (2008).

Optical bistable devices as sensing elements

The nonlinear optical properties of many materials and devices have been the main object of research as potential candidates for sensing in different places. Just one of these properties has been, in most of the cases, the basis for the sensing operation. As a consequence, just one parameter can be detected. In this paper, although just one property will be employed too, we will show the possibility to sense different parameters with just one type of sensor. The way adopted in this work is the use of the optical bistability obtained from different photonic structures. Because this optical bistability has a strong dependence on many different parameters the possibility to sense different inputs appears. In our case, we will report the use of some non-linear optical devices, mainly Semiconductor Optical Amplifiers, as sensing elements. Because their outputs depend on many parameters, as the incident light wavelength, polarization, intensity and direction, applied voltage and feedback characteristics, they can be employed to detect, at the same time, different type of signals. This is because the way these different signals affect to the sensor response is very different too and appears under a different set of characteristics.

Optical characterisation of semi-transparent PV modules for building integration

A complete characterisation of PV modules for building integration is needed in order to know their influence on the building’s global energy balance. Specifically, certain characteristic parameters should be obtained for each different PV module suitable for building integrated photovoltaics (BIPV), some by direct or indirect measurements at the laboratory, and others by monitoring the element performance mounted in real operating conditions. In the case of transparent building envelopes it is particularly important to perform an optical and thermal characterization of the PV modules that would be integrated in them. This paper addresses the optical characterization of some commercial thin-film PV modules having different degrees of transparency, suitable for building integration in façades. The approach is based on the measurement of the spectral UV/Vis/NIR reflectance and transmittance of the different considered samples, both at normal incidence and as a function of the angle of incidence. With the obtained results, the total and zoned UV, visible and NIR transmission and reflection values are calculated, enabling the correct characterization of the PV modules integrated in façades and the subsequent evaluation of their impact over the electrical, thermal and lighting performance in a building.

Optical properties of ZnMgO films grown by spray pyrolysis and their application to UV photodetection

This work presents a comprehensive optical characterization of Zn1−xMgxO thin films grown by spray pyrolysis (SP). Absorption measurements show the high potential of this technique to tune the bandgap from 3.30 to 4.11 eV by changing the Mg acetate content in the precursor solution, leading to a change of the Mg-content ranging from 0 up to 35%, as measured by transmission electron microscopy-energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy. The optical emission of the films obtained by cathodoluminescence and photoluminescence spectroscopy shows a blue shift of the peak position from 3.26 to 3.89 eV with increasing Mg incorporation, with a clear excitonic contribution even at high Mg contents. The linewidth broadening of the absorption and emission spectra as well as the magnitude of the observed Stokes shift are found to significantly increase with the Mg content. This is shown to be related to both potential fluctuations induced by pure statistical alloy disorder and the presence of a tail of band states, the latter dominating for medium Mg contents. Finally, metal–semiconductor–metal photodiodes were fabricated showing a high sensitivity and a blue shift in the cut-off energy from 3.32 to 4.02 eV, i.e., down to 308 nm. The photodiodes present large UV/dark contrast ratios (102 − 107), indicating the viability of SP as a growth technique to fabricate low cost (Zn, Mg)O-based UV photodetectors reaching short wavelengths.

Experimental requirements for Grover's algorithm in optical quantum computation

The field of linear optical quantum computation (LOQC) will soon need a repertoire of experimental milestones. We make progress in this direction by describing several experiments based on Grover's algorithm. These experiments range from a relatively simple implementation using only a single nonscalable controlled- NOT (CNOT) gate to the most complex, requiring two concatenated scalable CNOT gates, and thus form a useful set of early milestones for LOQC. We also give a complete description of basic LOQC using polarization-encoded qubits, making use of many simplifications to the original scheme of Knill, Laflamme, and Milburn [E. Knill, R. Laflamme, and G. J. Milburn, Nature (London) 409, 46 (2001)].

Interconvertibility of single-rail optical qubits

We show how to convert between partially coherent superpositions of a single photon with the vacuum by using linear optics and postselection based on homodyne measurements. We introduce a generalized quantum efficiency for such states and show that any conversion that decreases this quantity is possible. We also prove that our scheme is optimal by showing that no linear optical scheme with generalized conditional measurements, and with one single-rail qubit input, can improve the generalized efficiency. (c) 2006 Optical Society of America.

Optical properties of chiral thin films and microparticles

In this work I study the optical properties of helical particles and chiral sculptured thin films, using computational modeling (discrete dipole approximation, Berreman calculus), and experimental techniques (glancing angle deposition, ellipsometry, scatterometry, and non-linear optical measurements). The first part of this work focuses on linear optics, namely light scattering from helical microparticles. I study the influence of structural parameters and orientation on the optical properties of particles: circular dichroism (CD) and optical rotation (OR), and show that as a consequence of random orientation, CD and OR can have the opposite sign, compared to that of the oriented particle, potentially resulting in ambiguity of measurement interpretation. Additionally, particles in random orientation scatter light with circular and elliptical polarization states, which implies that in order to study multiple scattering from randomly oriented chiral particles, the polarization state of light cannot be disregarded. To perform experiments and attempt to produce particles, a newly constructed multi stage thin film coating chamber is calibrated. It enables the simultaneous fabrication of multiple sculptured thin film coatings, each with different structure. With it I successfully produce helical thin film coatings with Ti and TiO_{2}. The second part of this work focuses on non-linear optics, with special emphasis on second-harmonic generation. The scientific literature shows extensive experimental and theoretical work on second harmonic generation from chiral thin films. Such films are expected to always show this non-linear effect, due to their lack of inversion symmetry. However no experimental studies report non-linear response of chiral sculptured thin films. In this work I grow films suitable for a second harmonic generation experiment, and report the first measurements of non-linear response.

Investigations on the structural, optical and magnetic properties of nanostructured cerium oxide in pure and doped forms and its polymer nanocomposites

In recent years, nanoscience and nanotechnology has emerged as one of the most important and exciting frontier areas of research interest in almost all fields of science and technology. This technology provides the path of many breakthrough changes in the near future in many areas of advanced technological applications. Nanotechnology is an interdisciplinary area of research and development. The advent of nanotechnology in the modern times and the beginning of its systematic study can be thought of to have begun with a lecture by the famous physicist Richard Feynman. In 1960 he presented a visionary and prophetic lecture at the meeting of the American Physical Society entitled “there is plenty of room at the bottom” where he speculated on the possibility and potential of nanosized materials. Synthesis of nanomaterials and nanostructures are the essential aspects of nanotechnology. Studies on new physical properties and applications of nanomaterials are possible only when materials are made available with desired size, morphology, crystal structure and chemical composition. Cerium oxide (ceria) is one of the important functional materials with high mechanical strength, thermal stability, excellent optical properties, appreciable oxygen ion conductivity and oxygen storage capacity. Ceria finds a variety of applications in mechanical polishing of microelectronic devices, as catalysts for three-way automatic exhaust systems and as additives in ceramics and phosphors. The doped ceria usually has enhanced catalytic and electrical properties, which depend on a series of factors such as the particle size, the structural characteristics, morphology etc. Ceria based solid solutions have been widely identified as promising electrolytes for intermediate temperature solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC). The success of many promising device technologies depends on the suitable powder synthesis techniques. The challenge for introducing new nanopowder synthesis techniques is to preserve high material quality while attaining the desired composition. The method adopted should give reproducible powder properties, high yield and must be time and energy effective. The use of a variety of new materials in many technological applications has been realized through the use of thin films of these materials. Thus the development of any new material will have good application potential if it can be deposited in thin film form with the same properties. The advantageous properties of thin films include the possibility of tailoring the properties according to film thickness, small mass of the materials involved and high surface to volume ratio. The synthesis of polymer nanocomposites is an integral aspect of polymer nanotechnology. By inserting the nanometric inorganic compounds, the properties of polymers can be improved and this has a lot of applications depending upon the inorganic filler material present in the polymer.

Diffraction gratings fabricated in DLC thin films

This work presents the fabrication of two-dimensional diffraction gratings in diamond-like carbon (DLC) thin films, with applications in computer-generated holography and micro optics. In order to achieve high diffraction efficiency and to have a very simple manufacturing process, the device is designed to modulate only the phase of an incoming coherent monochromatic laser beam (632.8 nm, HeNe laser). This modulation is obtained by implementing a binary microrelief in the DLC film, responsible for generating a localized optical path difference of half a wavelength. This microrelief is obtained by anisotropic reactive ion etching of the DLC surface in an oxygen based plasma. The DLC layer was grown by reactive magnetron sputtering, using a methane-based plasma chemistry. AFM measurements show a low-level surface roughness of less than 1% of the operation wavelength, and optical characterization shows a good quality of the reconstructed diffraction patterns. (C) 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Parametric signal regeneration

We present an ultra-high bandwidth all-optical digital signal regeneration device concept utilising non-degenerate parametric interaction in a one-dimensional waveguide. Performance is analysed in terms of re-amplification, re-timing, and re-shaping (including centre frequency correction) of time domain multiplexed signals. Bandwidths of 10-100 THz are achievable. (C) 2001 Published by Elsevier Science B.V.

Non-Markovian homodyne-mediated feedback on a two-level atom: a quantum trajectory treatment

Quantum feedback can stabilize a two-level atom against decoherence (spontaneous emission), putting it into an arbitrary (specified) pure state. This requires perfect homodyne detection of the atomic emission, and instantaneous feedback. Inefficient detection was considered previously by two of us. Here we allow for a non-zero delay time tau in the feedback circuit. Because a two-level atom is a non-linear optical system, an analytical solution is not possible. However, quantum trajectories allow a simple numerical simulation of the resulting non-Markovian process. We find the effect of the time delay to be qualitatively similar to chat of inefficient detection. The solution of the non-Markovian quantum trajectory will not remain fixed, so that the time-averaged state will be mixed, not pure. In the case where one tries to stabilize the atom in the excited state, an approximate analytical solution to the quantum trajectory is possible. The result, that the purity (P = 2Tr[rho (2)] - 1) of the average state is given by P = 1 - 4y tau (where gamma is the spontaneous emission rate) is found to agree very well with the numerical results. (C) 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.