Directional dominance on stature and cognition in diverse human populations

Homozygosity has long been associated with rare, often devastating, Mendelian disorders1, and Darwin was one of the first to recognize that inbreeding reduces evolutionary fitness2. However, the effect of the more distant parental relatedness that is common in modern human populations is less well understood. Genomic data now allow us to investigate the effects of homozygosity on traits of public health importance by observing contiguous homozygous segments (runs of homozygosity), which are inferred to be homozygous along their complete length. Given the low levels of genome-wide homozygosity prevalent in most human populations, information is required on very large numbers of people to provide sufficient power3, 4. Here we use runs of homozygosity to study 16 health-related quantitative traits in 354,224 individuals from 102 cohorts, and find statistically significant associations between summed runs of homozygosity and four complex traits: height, forced expiratory lung volume in one second, general cognitive ability and educational attainment (P < 1 × 10−300, 2.1 × 10−6, 2.5 × 10−10 and 1.8 × 10−10, respectively). In each case, increased homozygosity was associated with decreased trait value, equivalent to the offspring of first cousins being 1.2 cm shorter and having 10 months’ less education. Similar effect sizes were found across four continental groups and populations with different degrees of genome-wide homozygosity, providing evidence that homozygosity, rather than confounding, directly contributes to phenotypic variance. Contrary to earlier reports in substantially smaller samples5, 6, no evidence was seen of an influence of genome-wide homozygosity on blood pressure and low density lipoprotein cholesterol, or ten other cardio-metabolic traits. Since directional dominance is predicted for traits under directional evolutionary selection7, this study provides evidence that increased stature and cognitive function have been positively selected in human evolution, whereas many important risk factors for late-onset complex diseases may not have been.

Hematopoietic Stem Cell Development and Transcriptional Regulation

The continuous production of blood cells, a process termed hematopoiesis, is sustained throughout the lifetime of an individual by a relatively small population of cells known as hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs). HSCs are unique cells characterized by their ability to self-renew and give rise to all types of mature blood cells. Given their high proliferative potential, HSCs need to be tightly regulated on the cellular and molecular levels or could otherwise turn malignant. On the other hand, the tight regulatory control of HSC function also translates into difficulties in culturing and expanding HSCs in vitro. In fact, it is currently not possible to maintain or expand HSCs ex vivo without rapid loss of self-renewal. Increased knowledge of the unique features of important HSC niches and of key transcriptional regulatory programs that govern HSC behavior is thus needed. Additional insight in the mechanisms of stem cell formation could enable us to recapitulate the processes of HSC formation and self-renewal/expansion ex vivo with the ultimate goal of creating an unlimited supply of HSCs from e.g. human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) or induced pluripotent stem cells (iPS) to be used in therapy. We thus asked: How are hematopoietic stem cells formed and in what cellular niches does this happen (Papers I, II)? What are the molecular mechanisms that govern hematopoietic stem cell development and differentiation (Papers III, IV)? Importantly, we could show that placenta is a major fetal hematopoietic niche that harbors a large number of HSCs during midgestation (Paper I)(Gekas et al., 2005). In order to address whether the HSCs found in placenta were formed there we utilized the Runx1-LacZ knock-in and Ncx1 knockout mouse models (Paper II). Importantly, we could show that HSCs emerge de novo in the placental vasculature in the absence of circulation (Rhodes et al., 2008). Furthermore, we could identify defined microenvironmental niches within the placenta with distinct roles in hematopoiesis: the large vessels of the chorioallantoic mesenchyme serve as sites of HSC generation whereas the placental labyrinth is a niche supporting HSC expansion (Rhodes et al., 2008). Overall, these studies illustrate the importance of distinct milieus in the emergence and subsequent maturation of HSCs. To ensure proper function of HSCs several regulatory mechanisms are in place. The microenvironment in which HSCs reside provides soluble factors and cell-cell interactions. In the cell-nucleus, these cell-extrinsic cues are interpreted in the context of cell-intrinsic developmental programs which are governed by transcription factors. An essential transcription factor for initiation of hematopoiesis is Scl/Tal1 (stem cell leukemia gene/T-cell acute leukemia gene 1). Loss of Scl results in early embryonic death and total lack of all blood cells, yet deactivation of Scl in the adult does not affect HSC function (Mikkola et al., 2003b. In order to define the temporal window of Scl requirement during fetal hematopoietic development, we deactivated Scl in all hematopoietic lineages shortly after hematopoietic specification in the embryo . Interestingly, maturation, expansion and function of fetal HSCs was unaffected, and, as in the adult, red blood cell and platelet differentiation was impaired (Paper III)(Schlaeger et al., 2005). These findings highlight that, once specified, the hematopoietic fate is stable even in the absence of Scl and is maintained through mechanisms that are distinct from those required for the initial fate choice. As the critical downstream targets of Scl remain unknown, we sought to identify and characterize target genes of Scl (Paper IV). We could identify transcription factor Mef2C (myocyte enhancer factor 2 C) as a novel direct target gene of Scl specifically in the megakaryocyte lineage which largely explains the megakaryocyte defect observed in Scl deficient mice. In addition, we observed an Scl-independent requirement of Mef2C in the B-cell compartment, as loss of Mef2C leads to accelerated B-cell aging (Gekas et al. Submitted). Taken together, these studies identify key extracellular microenvironments and intracellular transcriptional regulators that dictate different stages of HSC development, from emergence to lineage choice to aging.

Effects of compressibility and heat release on entrainment processes in mixing layers

Characteristics of the process of entrainment in plane mixing layers, and the changes with compressibility and heat release, were studied using temporal DNS with simultaneous fluid packet tracking. Convective Mach numbers of the simulations are 0.15, 0.7 and 1.1. The Reynolds number is quite high (between 11 000 and 37 000 based on layer width and velocity difference), and is above the mixing transition. The study agrees with recent findings in round jets: first, engulfed fluid volume and its growth rate are both very small compared with the volume of the turbulent region and its growth rate, respectively. Secondly, most often, the process occurs close to the turbulent-nonturbulent boundaries. A new finding is that both compressibility and heat release retard the entrainment process so that it takes an O(1) time for vorticity or scalar levels to grow even after growth has been initiated. This delay is manifested as the fall in mixing layer growth rates as compressibility and heat release levels increase.

Immigrant Associations in the Metropolitan Area of Finland : Forms of Mobilisation, Participation and Representation

This study examines the role of immigrant associations in the societal and political integration of immigrants into Finnish society. The societal focus is on the ability of immigrant associations to mobilise their ethnic group members to participate in the socio-economic, cultural and political domains of Finnish society and in certain cases even beyond. The political integrative aims are the opportunities of immigrant associations to participate and represent the interests of their ethnic group in local and national policy making. This study focuses on associations in the Metropolitan Area of Finland, (Espoo, Helsinki and Vantaa).The qualitative research consisted of 71 interviews conducted with members of immigrant associations and civil servants. These interviews were mainly semi-structured, including some additional open-ended questions. Additional data consisted of documents, planning reports and of follow-up enquiries. -- In the analysis of the data I categorised thirty-two immigrant associations according to the activity forms and the description of the goals by the members. The four categories consisted of integrative, societal, ethno-cultural and transnational immigrant associations. Most of the immigrant associations belonged to the integrative category (15 of 32 associations). On the one hand the aims of these associations are to provide access for their ethnic group members into Finnish society, while on the other to strengthen the ethnic identity of their members by organising ethno-cultural activities. The societal associations only focused on activities with the objective of including immigrants into the Finnish labour market and educational system. The goal of ethno-cultural associations was to strengthen the ethnic identity of their ethnic group members. The transnational associations aimed at improving the living conditions of women and children in the members' country of origin. The possibilities for immigrant associations to mobilise their members depends partly on external financing. Subsidies have been allocated for societal activities in particular. There remains a risk of the crowding out of ethno-cultural activities: something which has already taken place in several European countries. Immigrant associations aim to strengthen the identity of immigrants mainly by organising social and ethno-cultural activities. Another important target was to provide peer support and therapy courses. Additionally, immigrant women's associations offer assistance to women who have encountered violence by providing counselling and in some cases access to shelter. The data showed that there is an ever growing need to pay heed to the well-being of women, children and elderly immigrants. The participation of immigrant associations in the municipalities' integrative issues takes place mainly through cooperative projects. Until the end of the 1990s there had not been much cooperation. The problem with the projects was that they had mainly been managed by civil servants, whereas members from immigrant associations had remained in a more passive position. Representation of immigrant associations in councils has been fairly weak. Immigrant associations are included in the multicultural councils of Espoo and Vantaa, but only in the planning stages. The municipality of Helsinki does not include immigrant associations due to the large number of organisations which causes problems in finding fair, democratic representation. At the national level, the ‘Advisory Board for Ethnic Relations’ – ETNO didn’t chose its members based on membership of ethnic associations, but based on belongingness to one of the larger language groups spoken by the foreign population in Finland. Since ETNO’s third period (2005-2007), the representatives of immigrant associations and ethnic minority groups have been chosen from proposed candidates. Key words: immigrant associations, integration, mobilisation, participation, representation, the Metropolitan area of Finland, immigrant (women), civil servants

Trust and Collectives

"Trust and Collectives" is a compilation of articles: (I) "On Rational Trust" (in Meggle, G. (ed.) Social Facts & Collective Intentionality, Dr. Hänsel-Hohenhausen AG (currently Ontos), 2002), (II) "Simulating Rational Social Normative Trust, Predictive Trust, and Predictive Reliance Between Agents" (M.Tuomela and S. Hofmann, Ethics and Information Technology 5, 2003), (III) "A Collective's Trust in a Collective's action" (Protosociology, 18-19, 2003), and (IV) "Cooperation and Trust in Group Contexts" (R. Tuomela and M.Tuomela, Mind and Society 4/1, 2005 ). The articles are tied together by an introduction that dwells deeply on the topic of trust. (I) presents a somewhat general version of (RSNTR) and some basic arguments. (II) offers an application of (RSNTR) for a computer simulation of trust.(III) applies (RSNTR) to Raimo Tuomela's "we-mode"collectives (i.e. The Philosophy of Social Practices, Cambridge University Press, 2002). (IV) analyzes cooperation and trust in the context of acting as a member of a collective. Thus, (IV) elaborates on the topic of collective agency in (III) and puts the trust account (RSNTR) to work in a framework of cooperation. The central aim of this work is to construct a well-argued conceptual and theoretical account of rational trust, viz. a person's subjectively rational trust in another person vis-à-vis his performance of an action, seen from a first-person point of view. The main method is conceptual and theoretical analysis understood along the lines of reflective equilibrium. The account of rational social normative trust (RSNTR), which is argued and defended against other views, is the result of the quest. The introduction stands on its own legs as an argued presentation of an analysis of the concept of rational trust and an analysis of trust itself (RSNTR). It is claimed that (RSNTR) is "genuine" trust and embedded in a relationship of mutual respect for the rights of the other party. This relationship is the growing site for trust, a causal and conceptual ground, but it is not taken as a reason for trusting (viz. predictive "trust"). Relevant themes such as risk, decision, rationality, control, and cooperation are discussed and the topics of the articles are briefly presented. In this work it is argued that genuine trust is to be kept apart from predictive "trust." When we trust a person vis-à-vis his future action that concerns ourselves on the basis of his personal traits and/or features of the specific situation we have a prediction-like attitude. Genuine trust develops in a relationship of mutual respect for the mutual rights of the other party. Such a relationship is formed through interaction where the parties gradually find harmony concerning "the rules of the game." The trust account stands as a contribution to philosophical research on central social notions and it could be used as a theoretical model in social psychology, economical and political science where interaction between persons and groups are in focus. The analysis could also serve as a model for a trust component in computer simulation of human action. In the context of everyday life the account clarifies the difference between predictive "trust" and genuine trust. There are no fast shortcuts to trust. Experiences of mutual respect for mutual rights cannot be had unless there is respect.

A metabolomic approach to studying mechanisms of polymeric gene delivery to retinal pigment epithelial cells

Tiivistelmä ReferatAbstract Metabolomics is a rapidly growing research field that studies the response of biological systems to environmental factors, disease states and genetic modifications. It aims at measuring the complete set of endogenous metabolites, i.e. the metabolome, in a biological sample such as plasma or cells. Because metabolites are the intermediates and end products of biochemical reactions, metabolite compositions and metabolite levels in biological samples can provide a wealth of information on on-going processes in a living system. Due to the complexity of the metabolome, metabolomic analysis poses a challenge to analytical chemistry. Adequate sample preparation is critical to accurate and reproducible analysis, and the analytical techniques must have high resolution and sensitivity to allow detection of as many metabolites as possible. Furthermore, as the information contained in the metabolome is immense, the data set collected from metabolomic studies is very large. In order to extract the relevant information from such large data sets, efficient data processing and multivariate data analysis methods are needed. In the research presented in this thesis, metabolomics was used to study mechanisms of polymeric gene delivery to retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells. The aim of the study was to detect differences in metabolomic fingerprints between transfected cells and non-transfected controls, and thereafter to identify metabolites responsible for the discrimination. The plasmid pCMV-β was introduced into RPE cells using the vector polyethyleneimine (PEI). The samples were analyzed using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and ultra performance liquid chromatography (UPLC) coupled to a triple quadrupole (QqQ) mass spectrometer (MS). The software MZmine was used for raw data processing and principal component analysis (PCA) was used in statistical data analysis. The results revealed differences in metabolomic fingerprints between transfected cells and non-transfected controls. However, reliable fingerprinting data could not be obtained because of low analysis repeatability. Therefore, no attempts were made to identify metabolites responsible for discrimination between sample groups. Repeatability and accuracy of analyses can be influenced by protocol optimization. However, in this study, optimization of analytical methods was hindered by the very small number of samples available for analysis. In conclusion, this study demonstrates that obtaining reliable fingerprinting data is technically demanding, and the protocols need to be thoroughly optimized in order to approach the goals of gaining information on mechanisms of gene delivery.

Diversitet och tillväxtfrämjande egenskaper hos Stenotrophomonas-endofyter isolerade från Calliandra calothyrsus Meisn. rotknölar

The bacterial genus Stenotrophomonas comprises 12 species. They are widely found throughout the environment and particularly S. maltophilia, S. rhizophila and S. pavanii are closely associated with plants. Strains of the most common Stenotrophomonas species, S. maltophilia, promote plant growth and health, degrade natural and man-made pollutants and produce biomolecules of biotechnological and economical value. Many S. maltophilia –strains are also multidrug resistant and can act as opportunistic human pathogens. During an INCO-project (1998-2002) rhizobia were collected from root nodules of the tropical leguminous tree Calliandra calothyrsus Meisn. from several countries in Central America, Africa and New Caledonia. The strains were identified by the N2-group (Helsinki university) and some strains turned out to be members of the genus Stenotrophomonas. Several Stenotrophomonas strains induced white tumor- or nodule-like structures on Calliandra?s roots in plant experiments. The strains could, besides from root nodules, also be isolated from surface sterilized roots and stems. The purpose of my work was to investigate if the Stenotrophomonas strains i) belong to a new Stenotrophomonas species, ii) have the same origin, iii) if there are other differences than colony morphology between phase variations of the same strain, iv) have plant growth-promoting (PGP) activity or other advantageous effects on plants, and v) like rhizobia have ability to induce root nodule formation. The genetic diversity and clustering of the Stenotrophomonas strains were analyzed with AFLP fingerprinting to get indications about their geographical origin. Differences in enzymatic properties and ability to use different carbon and energy sources were tested between the two phases of each strain with commercial API tests for bacterial identification. The ability to infect root hairs and induce root nodule formation was investigated both using plant tests with the host plant Calliandra and PCR amplification of nodA and nodC genes for nodulation. The PGP activity of the strains was tested in vitro mainly with plate methods. The impact on growth, nitrogen content and nodulation in vivo was investigated through greenhouse experiments with the legumes Phaseolus vulgaris and Galega orientalis. Both the genetic and phenotypic diversity among the Stenotrophomonas strains was small, which proposes that they have the same origin. The strains brought about changes on the root hairs of Calliandra and they also increased the amount of root hairs. However, no root nodules were detected. The strains produced IAA, protease and lipase in vitro. They also showed plant a growth-promoting effect on G. orientalis, both alone and together with R. galegae HAMBI 540, and also activated nodulation among efficient rhizobia on P. vulgaris in greenhouse. It requires further research to get a better picture about the mechanisms behind the positive effects. The results in this thesis, however, confirm earlier studies concerning Stenotrophomonas positive impact on plants.

Molecular diagnosis of developmental disorders

ABSTRACT Idiopathic developmental disorders (DDs) affect ~1% of the population worldwide. This being a considerable amount, efforts are being made to elucidate the disease mechanisms. One or several genetic factors cause 30-40% of DDs, and only 10% are caused by environmental factors. The remaining 50% of DD patients go undiagnosed, mostly due to a lack of diagnostic techniques. The cause in most undiagnosed cases is though to be a genetic factor or a combination of genetic and environmental factors. Despite the surge of new technologies entering the market, their implementation into diagnostic laboratories is hampered by costs, lack of information about the expected diagnostic yield, and the wide range of selection. This study evaluates new microarray methods in diagnosing idiopathic DDs, providing information about their added diagnostic value. Study I analysed 150 patients by array comparative genomic hybridization (array CGH, 44K and 244K), with a subsequent 18% diagnostic yield. These results are supported by other studies, indicating an enourmous added diagnostic value of array CGH, compared with conventional cytogenetic analysis. Nevertheless, 80% of the patients remained undiagnosed in Study I. In an effort to diagnose more patients, in Study IV the resolution was increased from 8.9 Kb of the 244K CGH array to 0.7 Kb, by using a single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) array. However, no additional pathogenic changes were detected in the 35 patients assessed, and thus, for diagnostic purposes, an array platform with ca 9 Kb resolution appears adequate. The recent vast increase in reports of detected aberrations and associated phenotypes has enabled characterization of several new syndromes first based on a common aberration and thereafter by delineation of common clinical characteristics. In Study II, a familial deletion at 9q22.2q22.32 with variable penetrance was described. Despite several reports of aberrations in the adjacent area at 9q associated with Gorlin syndrome, the patients in this family had a unique phenotype and did not present with the syndrome. In Study III, a familial duplication of chromosome 6p22.2 was described. The duplication caused increased expression of an important enzyme of the γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) degradation pathway, causing oxidative stress of the brain, and thus, very likely, the mild mental retardation of these patients. These two case studies attempted to pinpoint candidate genes and to resolve the pathogenic mechanism causing the clinical characteristics of the patients. Presenting rare genetic and clinical findings to the international science and medical community enables interpretation of similar findings in other patients. The added value of molecular karyotyping in patients with idiopathic DD is evident. As a first line of testing, arrays with a median resolution of at least 9 Kb should be considered and further characterization of detected aberrations undertaken when possible. Diagnostic whole-exome sequencing may be the best option for patients who remain undiagnosed after high-resolution array analysis.

Estado actual del bosque de galería de la parte alta del rio Santa Elena, sector norte de la Universidad Nacional Agraria, Managua

~vii~ RESUMEN La presente investigación se realizó en el bosque de galería de la parte alta del río Santa Elena, de la Universidad Nacional Agraria, donde se identificó el estado actual y la estructura horizontal y vertical, la composición florística en el estrato arbóreo del río, además, se determinó la diversidad a través del índice ecológico de Shannon-Weiner, por lo cual se realizó un inventario al cien por ciento (100 %). En cuanto a la estructura horizontal, se encontró el mayor número de individuos correspondiendo a la categoría 10 a 19.9 cm, la que presento menores cantidades de árboles fue la categoría mayor de 90cm, la dominancia más alta fue para Ficus trigonata (Chilamate). En cuanto al índice de valor de importancia (IVI), los valores más altos, le corresponden a las especies, Ficus trigonata (Chilamate), seguido por Guazuma ulmifolia (Guácimo de ternero) y Pithecellobium dulce (Espino de playa), con respecto a la abundancia específica, Ficus trigonata (Chilamate) y Guazuma ulmifolia (Guácimo de ternero), son las más abundantes, obteniéndose el mayor valor en la ribera 4, similares resultados para la ribera 2, ribera 3, y los que presentaron menor diversidad fueron ribera 1 e Isla, existiendo las mayores abundancias para la ribera 4 y la ribera 2, sobresaliendo las especies de: Ficus trigonata (Chilamate), Inga vera (Guavillo) y Terminalia catappa (Almendra), las cuales se encuentran en todas las riberas, y otras presentes en tres y dos riberas, no obstante, las actividades que se realizan en el área y los en sayos de agricultura han permitido que disminuya la cobertura vegetal y dando espacio a nuevas especies arvense que se desarrollen llegando incluso a las orillas del río, por esta razón se proponen soluciones para conservar el recurso bosque de galería.

Efecto de diferentes niveles de insumos y tipos de sombra sobre el comportamiento de las principales plagas del cultivo de café (Coffea arabica L), Masatepe, Nicaragua 2003-2004

El estudio se realizó en el Centro Experimental "Jardín Botánico", UNICAFE y en el Centro Experimental "Campos Azules", INT A, ubicados en Masatepe, Masaya en el período comprendido de mayo 2003 a abril 2004. Se estudió el efecto de las interacciones entre pleno sol y cuatro combinaciones de árboles maderables ( Simarouba glauca y Tabebuia rosea ) y leguminosas ( Inga spp . y Enter olobium ciclocarpum ) y cuatro niveles y tipos de insumos químicos (AC y MC) u orgánicos (MO y BO) sobre el comportamiento de las principales plagas del cultivo de café en un experimento de sistemas establecido por el CATIE en el Jardín Botánico y Campos Az ules en Masatepe. El ensayo cuenta de tres réplicas y 14 tratamientos, el tamaño de la parcela experimental es de 11 surcos de 10 plantas cada uno. En cada parcela se evaluaron 15 plantas distribuidas en cinco conglomerados de tres plantas cada uno. Los mu estreos se realizaron mensualmente mediante el método de recuento integral y las variables evaluadas fueron incidencia de roya, mancha de hierro, antracnosis, severidad de antracnosis en bandola, incidencia de minador, broca y chasparria. Los resultados ob tenidos demostraron que la enfermedad que tuvo mayor incidencia durante todos los muestreos fue mancha de hierro teniendo su mayor incidencia (15% - 25%) en los meses de agosto y septiembre, los tratamientos MO - SGTR, MC - IVSG y MO – IVSG fueron menos afe ctados por la enfermedad, mientras que los tratamientos AC - PSOL, MC - ECTR y MC - PSOL fueron los que presentaron mayor incidencia. Otra enfermedad que se presentó durante todos los muestreos fue antracnosis y los tratamientos se comportaron de forma sim ilar que en mancha de hierro, sin embargo es importante mencionar que esta enfermedad no alcanzó los niveles críticos establecidos (5%). En época seca se presentó la roya y el minador; para roya los tratamientos AC - PSOL, MC - PSOL y MC - ECTR fueron los que tuvieron menor incidencia, mientras que los tratamientos con mayor incidencia fueron MC - IVSG y MO - IVSG; para el minador no se encontraron diferencias significativas entre los tratamientos.

Cambios en la fertilidad del suelo, producción de biomasa y balance de nitrógeno en sistemas agroforestales con café en Nicaragua

Se estableció un experimento de un sistema agroforestal con el cultivo de café en el año 2001 en el Municipio de Masatepe, Nicaragua; estableciéndose en las parcelas principales especies arbóreas leguminosas y no leguminosas y en las subparcelas niveles de fertilizantes orgánicos y químicos aplicados a diferentes cantidades para el manejo de la fertilidad del suelo, enfermedades, plagas insectiles y malezas, con el propósito de establecer los cambios en la fertilidad del suelo, la producción de residuos vegetales y el balance de Nitrógeno. Para la determinación de las variables del suelo, mineralización del nitrógeno, carbono y biomasa microbiana se extrajo por parcela experimental un volumen de suelo para constituir una muestra compuesta. Para la producción de biomasa fueron muestreados dos árboles por parcela y determinados los contenidos de N; fue considerada la cantidad de N aportados por la adición de fertilizantes orgánicas y químicos. El N extraído por medio de la cosecha (grano uva) fue determinado para incluirlo en el balance. Los resultados muestran que se produce una menor acidez del suelo, y estadísticamente diferente en el Orgánico Intensivo comparado al manejo Convencional Moderado, y similar comportamiento en Fósforo, Potasio y la biomasa microbiana. En tanto la CIC, el N y el C total , resultó menor en el 2004 con respecto al 200l, en ambos años no hubo diferencias estadísticas entre los tratamientos. La tasa de mineralización del N es menor en el tratamiento a pleno sol con fertilizante químico con respecto a los tratamientos con sombra arbórea; mientras que los fertilizantes orgánicos muestran ser diferentes estadísticamente con respecto a fertilizantes químicos aplicados al suelo. Las cantidades de residuos vegetales producidos por la poda es dado por lnga. laurina, sin embargo, en el raleo Tabebuia. rosea la supera en esta actividad. El balance de Nitrógeno resulta negativo en los niveles de fertilizante Moderado Convencional y Orgánico Moderado dado que las extracciones por cosecha de los frutos de café y extracciones de leña son superiores a las adiciones de N vía fertilización provocando un empobrecimiento de este elemento mineral en el suelo.

Diversidad de aves en ocho comunidades del territorio Miskitu Indian Tasbaisca Kum, Reserva de Biósfera Bosawás, Nicaragua

La introducción de ganado en las áreas tradicionalmente agrícolas en el territorio Miskitu Indian Tasbaiska Kum ha influido en una modificación en su orden territorial para dar cabida a éste nuevo rubro por parte de sus habitantes. Es comúnmente conocido que la ganadería es una de las actividades productivas más incompatiblescon el bosque y la conservación de los elementos dentro de éste último, pero la rotación de las áreas de cultivo y pastoreo, y el uso de sistemas silvopastoriles podría reducir el impacto hacia los ambientes naturales. Con este estudio se plantea determinar la diversidad biológica de avifauna en los sistemas silvopastoriles ubicados en las cercanías de ocho comunidades del territorio Miskitu Indian Tasbaiska Kum, con el fin de determinar su potencial para preservar aves, en especial, aves de importancia para la conservación nacional. Para lograr los objetivos se realizó conteos de aves mediante el uso de puntos de conteo por comunidad, en las áreas donde suele llevarse a pastorear al ganado. En el estudio se invirtieron tres días por comunidad y se realizaron al menos dos observaciones por día, una entre las 06:00-10:00 y otra entre las 16:00 – 18:00. Con los datos obtenidos se calculó diferentes parámetros de diversidad biológica. Como resultado se observó un total de 423 individuos los cuales están agrupados en 67 especies y 27 familias. Las especies de aves más abundantes fueron: Brotogeris jugularis,Ramphocelus passerinii y Amazona auropaliata. Las comunidades Amarrana,Shiminka y Yakalpanani son las que registraron los mayores valores de los parámetros de biodiversidad. Se determinaron 14 especies en algún grado de conservación según la lista de los apéndices de CITES para Nicaragua y las listas del Sistema Nacional de Vedas 2012, entre éstas se incluyen Brotogeris jugularis y Amazona aurapaliata,as cuales resultaron también abundantes. La comunidad que concentró la mayor cantidad de aves en algún estado de con servación fue Yakalpanani. Las especies de plantas asociadas con la mayor diversidad de aves fueron especies de estadíos tempranos de sucesión como:Cecropia peltata ,Inga sp, Guazuma ulmifolia y Muntingia calabura. Aunque Yakalpanani es una de las comunidades más grandes, comparado con Boca de Plis, la ubicación de su área de pastoreo entre masas boscosas conservadas ha garantizado que los parámetros de diversidad biológica hayan resultado significativamente mayores en ésta, dado a una conectividad hasta el momento poco irrumpida.