Perfecting the Catching-up: The Case of Taiwan's Motorcycle Industry

The final stage of the catching-up process has formidable hurdles. This paper examines the case of Taiwan���s motorcycle industry and shows how latecomers overcame the hurdles. In the early 1990s, the two largest motorcycle makers in Taiwan, Sanyang and Kwang Yang, had completed the catching-up process and became independent from Honda, on which they had technologically depended since the early 1960s. The requisite for independence was acquiring the capacity for product innovation. The two assemblers could cultivate technological capacity by investing abundant resources, which they accumulated in the protected market. It should be noted that although the market was protected and highly concentrated, it was also very competitive. Another condition was the solid local suppliers of parts and components. The local suppliers had also grown under the government���s industrial policies. However, their development beyond imitators can be attributed to their own initiatives.

The Diversity and Dynamics of Industrial Organisation: Transformation of Local Assemblers in the Vietnamese Motorcycle Industry

This paper focuses on an emerging arm's-length form of industrial organisation in the motorcycle industry, which had traditionally been characterised by tightly integrated form of organisation. By engaging in how this new form of organisation that emerged in China was transferred to Vietnam and evolved in the Vietnamese context, this paper seeks to illustrate how the rise of local firms in developing countries is driving the increased diversity and dynamics of industrial organisation in an industry that had previously been dominated by TNCs from developed countries.

Knowledge spillover in Indian automobile industry : the process and the coverage

In India, as the production of passenger cars increased, many local small and medium enterprises (SMEs) entered the parts and components manufacturing sector. The sources of knowledge for large enterprises and SMEs are different. Naturally, spillover effects among large enterprises and between large enterprises and SMEs are different. This paper focuses on knowledge spillover among large enterprises and from large enterprises to SMEs. Subcontractor can absorb relation-specific skills through repeated interaction with parent company. The results of field survey emphasizes that relation-specific skills are a determinant factor of spillover effects from assemblers and large auto component manufacturers to SMEs. Econometric analysis shows that spillover effects among medium and large automobile units and from medium and large automobile units to small units went beyond boundary of cluster.

Exploring the sources of China's challenge to Japan : models of industrial organisation in the motorcycle industry

In view of the recent rise of China, this paper looks into one of the most important yet relatively overlooked ingredients of the Chinese success: industrial organisation. It will examine the case of the motorcycle industry, in which the rise of Chinese manufacturers even disrupted the established dominance of Japanese industry leaders. Adopting the modified version of the global value chain governance framework, this paper shows that the rise of China has been driven by a distinctive arm���s-length model of industrial organisation, which is in sharp contrast to the conventional captive model that has sustained the Japanese leadership.

The Japanese and Chinese models of industrial organisation : fighting for supremacy in the Vietnamese motorcycle industry

This paper explores the consequences of the emerging rivalry between Japanese and Chinese manufacturers. It focuses specifically on industrial organisation, one of the key factors that underlie the competitiveness of manufacturing industries. The question to be asked is what happens when distinctive models of industrial organisation, coming from Japan and China, clash in a developing country. An in-depth longitudinal analysis of the Vietnamese motorcycle industry adopting a modified version of the global value chain governance theory shows that a decade-long industrial transformation resulted in organisational diversity. The implications of the analysis for the literature on industrial organisation are discussed.

Formation of supply chain collaboration and firm performance in the Thai automotive and electronics industries

This paper examines factors that encourage firms to go into supply chain collaborations (SCC) and relationships between SCC and supply chain performances (SCP), using a questionnaire survey on Thai automotive and electronics industries in 2012. OLS regression results show firms established supplier evaluation and audit system, system of rewards for high-performance supplier and long-term transactions with their supply chain partners under a competitive pressure are more closely cooperate with these partners on information sharing and decision synchronization. Instrumental variables regression indicates SCC arisen from competitive pressure, supplier evaluation and audit, a system of rewards for high-performance supplier and long-term relationship causally influence SCP such as on-time delivery, responsiveness to fast procurement, flexibility to customer need, and profit.

Supply chain collaboration and responsiveness : a comparison between Thai automotive and electronics industries

This paper examines factors that promote firms to develop supply chain collaborations (SCC) with their partners and relationships between SCC and supply chain operational performances (SCOP), using a questionnaire survey on Thai automotive and electronics industries in 2012. This paper also carries out a comparative study on these questions between the electronics and automotive industries. Two-stage least squares (2SLS) regressions verifY that supplier evaluation and audit is a foundation for firms to share information and synchronize decision makings with their partners, and that such SCC are significantly related to SCOP indictors such as on-time delivery, fast procurement, and flexibility to customer need irrespective of industry type. On the other hand, competitive pressure motivates only electronics firms to develop sec in order to be more innovative.

Boundaries of firms and catching up by latecomers in global production networks : the case of a Mexican auto-parts manufacturer

For manufacturing firms in developing countries, there are high barriers to entry and to catching up with competitors in their global production networks (GPNs). This paper examines the case of a Mexican auto-parts manufacturer that succeeded in catching up in the automotive GPN. The author proposes that the door to GPNs is open thanks to frequent changes in the boundaries of firms, and also stresses the importance of the necessary conditions that generate opportunities, including institutional settings that facilitate market entry and catching up, and capability building by firms hopeful of entry.

Measuring smile curves in global value chains

The concept and logic of the "smile curve" in the context of global value chains has been widely used and discussed at the individual firm level, but rarely identified and investigated at the country and industry levels by using real data. This paper proposes an idea, based on an inter-country input-output model, to consistently measure both the strength and length of linkages between producers and consumers along global value chains. This idea allows for better identification and mapping of smile curves for countries and industries according to their positions and degrees of participation in a given conceptual value chain. Using the 1995-2011 World Input-Output Tables, several conceptual value chains are investigated, including exports of electrical and optical equipment from China and Mexico and exports of automobiles from Japan and Germany. The identified smile curves provide a very intuitive and visual image, which can significantly improve our understanding of the roles played by different countries and industries in global value chains. Further, the smile curves help identify the benefits gained by these countries and industries through their participation in global trade.

Velero de competici��n capacitado para la regata alrededor del mundo ���Volvo Ocean Race.���

TIPO DE BUQUE: Velero de competici��n capacitado para la regata alrededor del mundo ���Volvo Ocean Race.��� REGLAMENTOS: Reglas de la clase: Volvo Ocean 60 rule 2000 + changes CLASIFICACI��N: ABS Guide for Building and Classing Offshore Racing Yachts 1994 incorporating Notice #1 DESPLAZAMIENTO M��XIMO: 15000 KG CALADO M��XIMO: 3.75 m ESLORA M��XIMA: 23.5 m CONSTRUCCI��N: Casco: Materiales compuestos. M��stil: materiales compuestos sin n��cleo o aluminio. INSTALACI��N EL��CTRICA: 24V DC con un motor auxiliar y al menos dos alternadores independientes. SISTEMA DE PROPULSI��N: Vela, aparejo tipo Sloop. Motor propulsivo de emergencia con h��lice plegable de dos palas capaz de dar 7 nudos en condiciones de mar en calma ALOJAMIENTO: para 12 tripulantes REQUERIMIENTOS: Desaladora-potabilizadora, radar, GPS, GMDSS, comunicaciones por sat��lite Inmarsat B y C, sistema de gobierno de emergencia, calefacci��n, bombas de lastre, sistema de correcci��n de escora mediante tanques de lastre liquido.

Reduced order models for industrial thermo-fluid problems

A new method is presented to generate reduced order models (ROMs) in Fluid Dynamics problems of industrial interest. The method is based on the expansion of the flow variables in a Proper Orthogonal Decomposition (POD) basis, calculated from a limited number of snapshots, which are obtained via Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD). Then, the POD-mode amplitudes are calculated as minimizers of a properly defined overall residual of the equations and boundary conditions. The method includes various ingredients that are new in this field. The residual can be calculated using only a limited number of points in the flow field, which can be scattered either all over the whole computational domain or over a smaller projection window. The resulting ROM is both computationally efficient(reconstructed flow fields require, in cases that do not present shock waves, less than 1 % of the time needed to compute a full CFD solution) and flexible(the projection window can avoid regions of large localized CFD errors).Also, for problems related with aerodynamics, POD modes are obtained from a set of snapshots calculated by a CFD method based on the compressible Navier Stokes equations and a turbulence model (which further more includes some unphysical stabilizing terms that are included for purely numerical reasons), but projection onto the POD manifold is made using the inviscid Euler equations, which makes the method independent of the CFD scheme. In addition, shock waves are treated specifically in the POD description, to avoid the need of using a too large number of snapshots. Various definitions of the residual are also discussed, along with the number and distribution of snapshots, the number of retained modes, and the effect of CFD errors. The method is checked and discussed on several test problems that describe (i) heat transfer in the recirculation region downstream of a backwards facing step, (ii) the flow past a two-dimensional airfoil in both the subsonic and transonic regimes, and (iii) the flow past a three-dimensional horizontal tail plane. The method is both efficient and numerically robust in the sense that the computational effort is quite small compared to CFD and results are both reasonably accurate and largely insensitive to the definition of the residual, to CFD errors, and to the CFD method itself, which may contain artificial stabilizing terms. Thus, the method is amenable for practical engineering applications. Resumen Se presenta un nuevo m��todo para generar modelos de orden reducido (ROMs) aplicado a problemas fluidodin��micos de inter��s industrial. El nuevo m��todo se basa en la expansi��n de las variables fluidas en una base POD, calculada a partir de un cierto n��mero de snapshots, los cuales se han obtenido gracias a simulaciones num��ricas (CFD). A continuaci��n, las amplitudes de los modos POD se calculan minimizando un residual global adecuadamente definido que combina las ecuaciones y las condiciones de contorno. El m��todo incluye varios ingredientes que son nuevos en este campo de estudio. El residual puede calcularse utilizando ��nicamente un n��mero limitado de puntos del campo fluido. Estos puntos puede encontrarse dispersos a lo largo del dominio computacional completo o sobre una ventana de proyecci��n. El modelo ROM obtenido es tanto computacionalmente eficiente (en aquellos casos que no presentan ondas de choque reconstruir los campos fluidos requiere menos del 1% del tiempo necesario para calcular una soluci��n CFD) como flexible (la ventana de proyecci��n puede escogerse de forma que evite contener regiones con errores en la soluci��n CFD localizados y grandes). Adem��s, en problemas aerodin��micos, los modos POD se obtienen de un conjunto de snapshots calculados utilizando un c��digo CFD basado en la versi��n compresible de las ecuaciones de Navier Stokes y un modelo de turbulencia (el cual puede incluir algunos t��rminos estabilizadores sin sentido f��sico que se a��aden por razones puramente num��ricas), aunque la proyecci��n en la variedad POD se hace utilizando las ecuaciones de Euler, lo que hace al m��todo independiente del esquema utilizado en el c��digo CFD. Adem��s, las ondas de choque se tratan espec��ficamente en la descripci��n POD para evitar la necesidad de utilizar un n��mero demasiado grande de snapshots. Varias definiciones del residual se discuten, as�� como el n��mero y distribuci��n de los snapshots,el n��mero de modos retenidos y el efecto de los errores debidos al CFD. El m��todo se comprueba y discute para varios problemas de evaluaci��n que describen (i) la transferencia de calor en la regi��n de recirculaci��n aguas abajo de un escal��n, (ii) el flujo alrededor de un perfil bidimensional en reg��menes subs��nico y trans��nico y (iii) el flujo alrededor de un estabilizador horizontal tridimensional. El m��todo es tanto eficiente como num��ricamente robusto en el sentido de que el esfuerzo computacional es muy peque��o comparado con el requerido por el CFD y los resultados son razonablemente precisos y muy insensibles a la definici��n del residual, los errores debidos al CFD y al m��todo CFD en s�� mismo, el cual puede contener t��rminos estabilizadores artificiales. Por lo tanto, el m��todo puede utilizarse en aplicaciones pr��cticas de ingenier��a.

Reverse logistics systems for waste generated throughout vehicles life-cycle

Waste produced during the service life of automobiles has received much less attention than end-of-life vehicles themselves. In this paper, we deal with the set up of a reverse logistics system for the collection and treatment of use-phase residues. First, the type of waste arising during vehicles? service life is characterized. Data were collected in collaboration with SIGRAUTO, the product stewardship organization in charge of vehicles? recovery in Spain. Next, three organizational models are proposed. The three alternatives are benchmarked and assessed from a double organizational and operational perspective for the particular case of the Madrid region in Spain

BaTboT: a biologically inspired flapping and morphing bat robot actuated by SMA-based artificial muscles

Bats are animals that posses high maneuvering capabilities. Their wings contain dozens of articulations that allow the animal to perform aggressive maneuvers by means of controlling the wing shape during flight (morphing-wings). There is no other flying creature in nature with this level of wing dexterity and there is biological evidence that the inertial forces produced by the wings have a key role in the attitude movements of the animal. This can inspire the design of highly articulated morphing-wing micro air vehicles (not necessarily bat-like) with a significant wing-to-body mass ratio. This thesis presents the development of a novel bat-like micro air vehicle (BaTboT) inspired by the morphing-wing mechanism of bats. BaTboT���s morphology is alike in proportion compared to its biological counterpart Cynopterus brachyotis, which provides the biological foundations for developing accurate mathematical models and methods that allow for mimicking bat flight. In nature bats can achieve an amazing level of maneuverability by combining flapping and morphing wingstrokes. Attempting to reproduce the biological wing actuation system that provides that kind of motion using an artificial counterpart requires the analysis of alternative actuation technologies more likely muscle fiber arrays instead of standard servomotor actuators. Thus, NiTinol Shape Memory Alloys (SMAs) acting as artificial biceps and triceps muscles are used for mimicking the morphing wing mechanism of the bat flight apparatus. This antagonistic configuration of SMA-muscles response to an electrical heating power signal to operate. This heating power is regulated by a proper controller that allows for accurate and fast SMA actuation. Morphing-wings will enable to change wings geometry with the unique purpose of enhancing aerodynamics performance. During the downstroke phase of the wingbeat motion both wings are fully extended aimed at increasing the area surface to properly generate lift forces. Contrary during the upstroke phase of the wingbeat motion both wings are retracted to minimize the area and thus reducing drag forces. Morphing-wings do not only improve on aerodynamics but also on the inertial forces that are key to maneuver. Thus, a modeling framework is introduced for analyzing how BaTboT should maneuver by means of changing wing morphology. This allows the definition of requirements for achieving forward and turning flight according to the kinematics of the wing modulation. Motivated by the biological fact about the influence of wing inertia on the production of body accelerations, an attitude controller is proposed. The attitude control law incorporates wing inertia information to produce desired roll (��) and pitch (��) acceleration commands. This novel flight control approach is aimed at incrementing net body forces (Fnet) that generate propulsion. Mimicking the way how bats take advantage of inertial and aerodynamical forces produced by the wings in order to both increase lift and maneuver is a promising way to design more efficient flapping/morphing wings MAVs. The novel wing modulation strategy and attitude control methodology proposed in this thesis provide a totally new way of controlling flying robots, that eliminates the need of appendices such as flaps and rudders, and would allow performing more efficient maneuvers, especially useful in confined spaces. As a whole, the BaTboT project consists of five major stages of development: - Study and analysis of biological bat flight data reported in specialized literature aimed at defining design and control criteria. - Formulation of mathematical models for: i) wing kinematics, ii) dynamics, iii) aerodynamics, and iv) SMA muscle-like actuation. It is aimed at modeling the effects of modulating wing inertia into the production of net body forces for maneuvering. - Bio-inspired design and fabrication of: i) skeletal structure of wings and body, ii) SMA muscle-like mechanisms, iii) the wing-membrane, and iv) electronics onboard. It is aimed at developing the bat-like platform (BaTboT) that allows for testing the methods proposed. - The flight controller: i) control of SMA-muscles (morphing-wing modulation) and ii) flight control (attitude regulation). It is aimed at formulating the proper control methods that allow for the proper modulation of BaTboT���s wings. - Experiments: it is aimed at quantifying the effects of properly wing modulation into aerodynamics and inertial production for maneuvering. It is also aimed at demonstrating and validating the hypothesis of improving flight efficiency thanks to the novel control methods presented in this thesis. This thesis introduces the challenges and methods to address these stages. Windtunnel experiments will be oriented to discuss and demonstrate how the wings can considerably affect the dynamics/aerodynamics of flight and how to take advantage of wing inertia modulation that the morphing-wings enable to properly change wings��� geometry during flapping. Resumen: Los murci��lagos son mam��feros con una alta capacidad de maniobra. Sus alas est��n conformadas por docenas de articulaciones que permiten al animal maniobrar gracias al cambio geom��trico de las alas durante el vuelo. Esta caracter��stica es conocida como (alas m��rficas). En la naturaleza, no existe ning��n especimen volador con semejante grado de dexteridad de vuelo, y se ha demostrado, que las fuerzas inerciales producidas por el batir de las alas juega un papel fundamental en los movimientos que orientan al animal en vuelo. Estas caracter��sticas pueden inspirar el dise��o de un micro veh��culo a��reo compuesto por alas m��rficas con redundantes grados de libertad, y cuya proporci��n entre la masa de sus alas y el cuerpo del robot sea significativa. Esta tesis doctoral presenta el desarrollo de un novedoso robot a��reo inspirado en el mecanismo de ala m��rfica de los murci��lagos. El robot, llamado BaTboT, ha sido dise��ado con par��metros morfol��gicos muy similares a los descritos por su s��mil biol��gico Cynopterus brachyotis. El estudio biol��gico de este especimen ha permitido la definici��n de criterios de dise��o y modelos matem��ticos que representan el comportamiento del robot, con el objetivo de imitar lo mejor posible la biomec��nica de vuelo de los murci��lagos. La biomec��nica de vuelo est�� definida por dos tipos de movimiento de las alas: aleteo y cambio de forma. Intentar imitar como los murci��lagos cambian la forma de sus alas con un prototipo artificial, requiere el an��lisis de m��todos alternativos de actuaci��n que se asemejen a la biomec��nica de los m��sculos que act��an las alas, y evitar el uso de sistemas convencionales de actuaci��n como servomotores �� motores DC. En este sentido, las aleaciones con memoria de forma, �� por sus siglas en ingl��s (SMA), las cuales son fibras de NiTinol que se contraen y expanden ante est��mulos t��rmicos, han sido usados en este proyecto como m��sculos artificiales que act��an como b��ceps y tr��ceps de las alas, proporcionando la funcionalidad de ala m��rfica previamente descrita. De esta manera, los m��sculos de SMA son mec��nicamente posicionados en una configuraci��n antagonista que permite la rotaci��n de las articulaciones del robot. Los actuadores son accionados mediante una se��al de potencia la cual es regulada por un sistema de control encargado que los m��sculos de SMA respondan con la precisi��n y velocidad deseada. Este sistema de control m��rfico de las alas permitir�� al robot cambiar la forma de las mismas con el ��nico prop��sito de mejorar el desempe��o aerodin��mico. Durante la fase de bajada del aleteo, las alas deben estar extendidas para incrementar la producci��n de fuerzas de sustentaci��n. Al contrario, durante el ciclo de subida del aleteo, las alas deben contraerse para minimizar el ��rea y reducir las fuerzas de fricci��n aerodin��mica. El control de alas m��rficas no solo mejora el desempe��o aerodin��mico, tambi��n impacta la generaci��n de fuerzas inerciales las cuales son esenciales para maniobrar durante el vuelo. Con el objetivo de analizar como el cambio de geometr��a de las alas influye en la definici��n de maniobras y su efecto en la producci��n de fuerzas netas, simulaciones y experimentos han sido llevados a cabo para medir c��mo distintos patrones de modulaci��n de las alas influyen en la producci��n de aceleraciones lineales y angulares. Gracias a estas mediciones, se propone un control de vuelo, �� control de actitud, el cual incorpora informaci��n inercial de las alas para la definici��n de referencias de aceleraci��n angular. El objetivo de esta novedosa estrategia de control radica en el incremento de fuerzas netas para la adecuada generaci��n de movimiento (Fnet). Imitar como los murci��lagos ajustan sus alas con el prop��sito de incrementar las fuerzas de sustentaci��n y mejorar la maniobra en vuelo es definitivamente un t��pico de mucho inter��s para el dise��o de robots a��ros mas eficientes. La propuesta de control de vuelo definida en este trabajo de investigaci��n podr��a dar paso a una nueva forma de control de vuelo de robots a��reos que no necesitan del uso de partes mec��nicas tales como alerones, etc. Este control tambi��n permitir��a el desarrollo de veh��culos con mayor capacidad de maniobra. El desarrollo de esta investigaci��n se centra en cinco etapas: - Estudiar y analizar el vuelo de los murci��lagos con el prop��sito de definir criterios de dise��o y control. - Formular modelos matem��ticos que describan la: i) cinem��tica de las alas, ii) din��mica, iii) aerodin��mica, y iv) actuaci��n usando SMA. Estos modelos permiten estimar la influencia de modular las alas en la producci��n de fuerzas netas. - Dise��o y fabricaci��n de BaTboT: i) estructura de las alas y el cuerpo, ii) mecanismo de actuaci��n m��rfico basado en SMA, iii) membrana de las alas, y iv) electr��nica abordo. - Contro de vuelo compuesto por: i) control de la SMA (modulaci��n de las alas) y ii) regulaci��n de maniobra (actitud). - Experimentos: est��n enfocados en poder cuantificar cuales son los efectos que ejercen distintos perfiles de modulaci��n del ala en el comportamiento aerodin��mico e inercial. El objetivo es demostrar y validar la hip��tesis planteada al inicio de esta investigaci��n: mejorar eficiencia de vuelo gracias al novedoso control de orientaci��n (actitud) propuesto en este trabajo. A lo largo del desarrollo de cada una de las cinco etapas, se ir��n presentando los retos, problem��ticas y soluciones a abordar. Los experimentos son realizados utilizando un t��nel de viento con la instrumentaci��n necesaria para llevar a cabo las mediciones de desempe��o respectivas. En los resultados se discutir�� y demostrar�� que la inercia producida por las alas juega un papel considerable en el comportamiento din��mico y aerodin��mico del sistema y como poder tomar ventaja de dicha caracter��stica para regular patrones de modulaci��n de las alas que conduzcan a mejorar la eficiencia del robot en futuros vuelos.

Origin and patterns of distribution of trace elements in street dust. Unleaded petrol and urban lead

The elemental composition, patterns of distribution and possible sources of street dust are not common to all urban environments, but vary according to the peculiarities of each city. The common features and dissimilarities in the origin and nature of street dust were investigated through a series of studies in two widely different cities, Madrid (Spain) and Oslo (Norway), between 1990 and 1994. The most comprehensive sampling campaign was carried out in the Norwegian capital during the summer of 1994. An area of 14 km2, covering most of downtown Oslo and some residential districts to the north of the city, was divided into 1 km2 mapping units, and 16 sampling increments of approximately 150 g were collected from streets and roads in each of them. The fraction below 100 ��m was acid-digested and analysed by ICP-MS. Statistical analyses of the results suggest that chemical elements in street dust can be classified into three groups: ���urban��� elements (Ba, Cd, Co, Cu, Mg, Pb, Sb, Ti, Zn), ���natural��� elements (Al, Ga, La, Mn, Na, Sr, Th, Y) and elements of a mixed origin or which have undergone geochemical changes from their original sources (Ca, Cs, Fe, Mo, Ni, Rb, Sr, U). Soil resuspension and/or mobilisation appears to be the most important source of ���natural��� elements, while ���urban��� elements originate primarily from traffic and from the weathering and corrosion of building materials. The data for Pb seem to prove that the gradual shift from leaded to unleaded petrol as fuel for automobiles has resulted in an almost proportional reduction in the concentration of Pb in dust particles under 100 ��m. This fact and the spatial distribution of Pb in the city strongly suggest that lead sources other than traffic (i.e. lead accumulated in urban soil over the years) may contribute as much lead, if not more, to urban street dust.

Do charges to freight trucks and trains in the European Union reflect their social marginal costs? Application to the case of Spain

In the last few years, the European Union (EU) has become greatly concerned about the environmental costs of road transport in Europe as a result of the constant growth in the market share of trucks and the steady decline in the market share of railroads. In order to reverse this trend, the EU is promoting the implementation of additional charges for heavy goods vehicles (HGV) on the trunk roads of the EU countries. However, the EU policy is being criticised because it does not address the implementation of charges to internalise the external costs produced by automobiles and other transport modes such as railroad. In this paper, we first describe the evolution of the HGV charging policy in the EU, and then assess its practical implementation across different European countries. Second, and of greater significance, by using the case study of Spain, we evaluate to what extent the current fees on trucks and trains reflect their social marginal costs, and consequently lead to an allocative-efficient outcome. We found that for the average case in Spain the truck industry meets more of the marginal social cost produced by it than does the freight railroad industry. The reason for this lies in the large sums of money paid by truck companies in fuel taxes, and the subsidies that continue to be granted by the government to the railroads.