An institutional view of local entrepreneurial climate

This paper proposes a conceptual framework on the role of formal and informal institutional factors at the sub-national level (e.g. city) in shaping the climate conducive for the growth and success of micro, small, and medium enterprises (MSMEs). Extant literature reveals that institutional analyses tend to focus on either formal or informal institutions, in narrow and fragmented ways. Likewise, previous studies focused their analysis on national or country-wide institutional frameworks, ignoring the institutional heterogeneity of regions and cities within a given country. This study attempts to develop an integrated institutional approach at the city-level and stretch the conceptual boundaries of formal and informal institutions as they shape the local entrepreneurial climate – the set of tangible and intangible institutional factors that are shaping the performance of entrepreneurial firms in a geographically and politically defined area such as a city.

The personal selling and sales management ethics research : managerial implications and research directions from a comprehensive review of the empirical literature

Research into ethics in personal selling and sales management has increased substantially over the preceding decade by investigating complex dimensions of ethical decision-making in greater depth and with more analytical sophistication. This review of the recent conceptual and empirical literature provides insight into the extent and the direction of this knowledge, recommends managerial action, and discusses areas for future exploration. Future direction is also provided through research propositions. The type of sales practitioner investigated, the main variables examined, and the key findings are summarized in an Appendix.

Histological and global gene expression analysis of the ‘lactating’ pigeon crop

Background: Both male and female pigeons have the ability to produce a nutrient solution in their crop for the nourishment of their young. The production of the nutrient solution has been likened to lactation in mammals, and hence the product has been called pigeon ‘milk’. It has been shown that pigeon ‘milk’ is essential for growth and development of the pigeon squab, and without it they fail to thrive. Studies have investigated the nutritional value of pigeon ‘milk’ but very little else is known about what it is or how it is produced. This study aimed to gain insight into the process by studying gene expression in the ‘lactating’ crop.
Results: Macroscopic comparison of ‘lactating’ and non-’lactating’ crop reveals that the ‘lactating’ crop is enlarged and thickened with two very obvious lateral lobes that contain discrete rice-shaped pellets of pigeon ‘milk’. This was characterised histologically by an increase in the number and depth of rete pegs extending from the basal layer of the epithelium to the lamina propria, and extensive proliferation and folding of the germinal layer into the superficial epithelium. A global gene expression profile comparison between ‘lactating’ crop and non-’lactating’ crop showed that 542 genes are up-regulated in the ‘lactating’ crop, and 639 genes are down-regulated. Pathway analysis revealed that genes up-regulated in ‘lactating’ crop were involved in the proliferation of melanocytes, extracellular matrix-receptor interaction, the adherens junction and the wingless (wnt) signalling pathway. Gene ontology analysis showed that antioxidant response and microtubule transport were enriched in ‘lactating’ crop.
Conclusions: There is a hyperplastic response in the pigeon crop epithelium during ‘lactation’ that leads to localised cellular stress and expression of antioxidant protein-encoding genes. The differentiated, cornified cells that form the pigeon ‘milk’ are of keratinocyte lineage and contain triglycerides that are likely endocytosed as very low density lipoprotein (VLDL) and repackaged as triglyceride in vesicles that are transported intracellularly by microtubules. This mechanism is an interesting example of the evolution of a system with analogies to mammalian lactation, as pigeon ‘milk’ fulfils a similar function to mammalian milk, but is produced by a different mechanism.