Simulating Fluid Flow in a Compressed Valve

The objective of the work is to study fluid flow behavior through a pinch valve and to estimate the flow coefficient (KV ) at different opening positions of the valve. The flow inside a compressed valve is more complex than in a straight pipe, and it is one of main topics of interest for engineers in process industry. In the present work, we have numerically simulated compressed valve flow at different opening positions. In order to simulate the flow through pinch valve, several models of the elastomeric valve tube (pinch valve tube) at different opening positions were constructed in 2D-axisymmetric and 3D geometries. The numerical simulations were performed with the CFD packages; ANSYS FLUENT and ANSYS CFX by using parallel computing. The distributions of static pressure, velocity and turbulent kinetic energy have been studied at different opening positions of the valve in both 2D-axisymmetric and 3D experiments. The flow coefficient (KV ) values have been measured at different valve openings and are compared between 2D-axisymmetric and 3D simulation results.

Numerical Investigation of Flow Past a Circular Cylinder and in a Staggered Tube Bundle Using Various Turbulence Models

Transitional flow past a three-dimensional circular cylinder is a widely studied phenomenon since this problem is of interest with respect to many technical applications. In the present work, the numerical simulation of flow past a circular cylinder, performed by using a commercial CFD code (ANSYS Fluent 12.1) with large eddy simulation (LES) and RANS (κ - ε and Shear-Stress Transport (SST) κ - ω! model) approaches. The turbulent flow for ReD = 1000 & 3900 is simulated to investigate the force coefficient, Strouhal number, flow separation angle, pressure distribution on cylinder and the complex three dimensional vortex shedding of the cylinder wake region. The numerical results extracted from these simulations have good agreement with the experimental data (Zdravkovich, 1997). Moreover, grid refinement and time-step influence have been examined. Numerical calculations of turbulent cross-flow in a staggered tube bundle continues to attract interest due to its importance in the engineering application as well as the fact that this complex flow represents a challenging problem for CFD. In the present work a time dependent simulation using κ – ε, κ - ω! and SST models are performed in two dimensional for a subcritical flow through a staggered tube bundle. The predicted turbulence statistics (mean and r.m.s velocities) have good agreement with the experimental data (S. Balabani, 1996). Turbulent quantities such as turbulent kinetic energy and dissipation rate are predicted using RANS models and compared with each other. The sensitivity of grid and time-step size have been analyzed. Model constants sensitivity study have been carried out by adopting κ – ε model. It has been observed that model constants are very sensitive to turbulence statistics and turbulent quantities.

Spectrophotometric flow injection procedure to indirect determination of paracetamol in pharmaceutical formulations using o-tolidine as reagent

A spectrophotometric flow injection method for the determination of paracetamol in pharmaceutical formulations is proposed. The procedure was based on the oxidation of paracetamol by sodium hypochloride and the determination of the excess of this oxidant using o-tolidine dichloride as chromogenic reagent at 430 nm. The analytical curve was linear in the paracetamol concentration range from 8.50 x 10-6 to 2.51 x 10-4 mol L-1 with a detection limit of 5.0 x 10-6 mol L-1. The relative standard deviation was smaller than 1.2% for 1.20 x 10-4 mol L-1 paracetamol solution (n = 10). The results obtained for paracetamol in pharmaceutical formulations using the proposed flow injection method and those obtained using a USP Pharmacopoeia method are in agreement at the 95% confidence level.

Flow injection analysis of vancomycin

A flow injection method for the quantitative analysis of vancomycin hydrochloride, C66H75Cl2N9O24.HCl (HVCM), based on the reaction with copper (II) ions, is presented. HVCM forms a lilac-blue complex with copper ions at pH≅4.5 in aqueous solutions, with maximum absorption at 555 nm. The detection limit was estimated to be about 8.5×10-5 mol L-1; the quantitation limit is about 2.5×10-4 mol L-1 and about 30 determinations can be performed in an hour. The accuracy of the method was tested through recovery procedures in presence of four different excipients, in the proportion 1:1 w/w. The results were compared with those obtained with the batch spectrophotometric and with the HPLC methods. Statistical comparison was done using the Student's procedure. Complete agreement was found at a 0.95 significance level between the proposed flow injection and the batch spectrophotometric methods, which present similar precision (RSD: 2.1 % vs. 1.9%).

Flow injection visible diffuse reflectance quantitative analysis of total sulfur in biodiesel, in plant leaves and in natural waters

Flow injection (FI) methodology, using diffuse reflectance in the visible region of the spectrum, for the analysis of total sulfur in the form of sulfate, precipitated in the form of barium sulfate, is presented. The method was applied to biodiesel, to plant leaves and to natural waters analysis. The analytical signal (S) correlates linearly with sulfate concentration (C) between 20 and 120 ppm, through the equation S=-1.138+0.0934 C (r = 0.9993). The experimentally observed limit of detection is about 10 ppm. The mean R.S.D. is about 3.0 %. Real samples containing sulfate were analyzed and the results obtained by the FI and by the reference batch turbidimetric method using the statistical Student's t-test and F-test were compared.

Flow-batch analyser for preparation of calibration standard mixtures in simultaneous multicomponent spectrometric analysis

The application of multivariate calibration techniques to multicomponent analysis by UV-VIS molecular absorption spectrometry is a powerful tool for simultaneous determination of several chemical species. However, when this methodology is accomplished manually, it is slow and laborious, consumes high amounts of reagents and samples, is susceptible to contaminations and presents a high operational cost. To overcome these drawbacks, a flow-batch analyser is proposed in this work. This analyser was developed for automatic preparation of standard calibration and test (or validation) mixtures. It was applied to the simultaneous determination of Cu2+, Mn2+ and Zn2+ in polyvitaminic and polymineral pharmaceutical formulations, using 4-(2-piridilazo) resorcinol as reagent and a UV-VIS spectrophotometer with a photodiode array detector. The results obtained with the proposed system are in good agreement with those obtained by flame atomic absorption spectrometry, which was employed as reference method. With the proposed analyser, the preparation of calibration and test mixtures can be accomplished about four hours, while the manual procedure requires at least two days. Moreover, it consumes smaller amounts of reagents and samples than the manual procedure. After the preparation of calibration and test mixtures, 60 samples h-1 can be carried out with the proposed flow-batch analyser.

Spectrophotometric flow injection system for determination of Zn2+ in ophthalmic formulations using Alizarin red S

A spectrophotometric flow injection method for the determination of Zn(II) in ophthalmic formulations was developed. In this work, Zn(II) ion was complexed with Alizarin red S in borate buffer solution (pH 9.0) and the chromophore produced was monitored at 520 nm. The analytical curve was linear in the Zn(II) concentration range from 6.05 x 10-6 to 1.50 x 10-4 mol L-1 with a detection limit of 3.60 x 10-6 mol L-1. Recoveries ranged from 96.3 to 105 % and a relative standard deviation of 1.2 % (n = 10) for 5.5x10-5 mol L-1 Zn(II) reference solution were obtained. The sampling rate was 60 h-1 and the results obtained of Zn(II) in ophthalmic products using this procedure are in close agreement with those obtained using a comparative spectrophotometric procedure at 95 % confidence level.

Traffic flow development at North European company level with respect of China and Russia

The aim of the thesis is to analyze traffic flows and its development from North European companies` point of view to China and Russia using data from logistics questionnaire. Selected North European companies are large Finnish and Swedish companies. The questionnaire was sent via email to the target group. The study is based on the answers got from respondent companies from years 2006, 2009 and 2010. In the thesis Finnish Talouselämä newspaper and Swedish Affärsdata are used as a database to find the target companies for the survey. Respondents were most often logistics managers in companies. In the beginning of the thesis concepts of transportation logistics is presented, including container types, trade terms, axel loads in roads and in railways. Also there is information about warehousing types and terminals. After that, general information of Chinese and Russian transportation logistics is presented. Chinese and Russian issues are discussed in two sections. In both of them it is analyzed economic development, freight transport and trade balance. Some practical examples of factory inaugurations in China and Russia are presented that Finnish and Swedish companies have completed. In freight transport section different transportation modes, logistics outsourcing and problems of transportation logistics is discussed. The results of the thesis show that transportation flows between Europe and China is changing. Freight traffic from China to European countries will strengthen even more from the current base. When it comes to Russia and Europe, traffic flows seem to be changing from eastbound traffic to westbound traffic. It means that in the future it is expected more freight traffic from Russia to Europe. Some probable reasons for that are recent factory establishments in Russia and company interviews support also this observation. Effects of the economic recession are mainly seen in the lower transportation amounts in 2009.

A pH optode based on thymol blue: application to determination of CO2 using flow injection analysis system

An optode based on thymol blue (TB), an acid-based indicator, has been constructed and evaluated as a detector in FIA system for CO2 determination. The dye was chemically immobilised on the surface of a bifurcated glass optical fibre bundle, using silanisation in organic media. In FIA system, hydrogen carbonate or carbonate samples are injected in a buffer carrier solution, and then are mixed with phosphoric acid solution to generate CO2, which diffuses through a PTFE membrane, in order to be collected in an acceptor carrier fluid, pumped towards to detection cell, in which the optode was adapted. The proposed system presents two linear response ranges, from 1.0 x 10-3 to 1.0 x 10-2 mol l-1, and from 2.0 x 10-2 to 0.10 mol l-1. The sampling frequency was 11 sample h-1, with good repeatability (R.S.D < 4 %, n = 10). In flow conditions the optode lifetime was 170 h. The system was applied in the analysis of commercial mineral water and the results obtained in the hydrogen carbonate determination did not differ significantly from those obtained by potentiometry, at a confidence level of 95 %.

Variação radial da retratibilidade e densidade básica da madeira de Eucalyptus saligna Sm.

A ultra-estrutura e a composição química da madeira, bem como suas propriedades físicas e mecânicas, variam significativamente entre espécies, entre árvores de uma mesma espécie e, mesmo, entre diferentes partes de uma mesma árvore. Com este trabalho objetivou-se o estudo dos parâmetros de retratibilidade e de densidade básica da madeira Eucalyptus saligna, com idade de 16 anos, proveniente de talhões experimentais da EMBRAPA Florestas, de Colombo, Paraná. As amostras foram retiradas à altura do DAP de quatro posições eqüidistantes a partir da medula em direção à periferia, correspondendo a 0, 33, 66 e 100%, com dimensões nominais de 1,0 x 2,0 x 3,0 cm, sendo a última dimensão no sentido longitudinal. Elas foram mantidas em câmara fechada com ventilação, próximo de soluções salinas supersaturadas, com o objetivo de proporcionar diferentes condições de umidade relativa. Uma vez atingidas as distintas condições de umidade de equilíbrio, as amostras foram secas em estufa a 105 ºC e obtidos os dados de retratibilidade e densidade básica da madeira nas posições mencionadas. Constataram-se valores de contração volumétrica mais baixos na região medular, apresentando um acréscimo para as demais posições. Comportamento semelhante foi observado para os coeficientes das contrações lineares nas direções tangencial e radial. O fator anisotrópico foi consideravelmente mais elevado na região medular, decrescendo substancialmente em direção ao alburno. A densidade básica não mostrou sinais efetivos de estabilidade, apesar de mostrar tendência de aumento em direção à periferia do tronco.

Influência da idade e da posição radial na flexão estática da madeira de Eucalyptus grandis Hill ex. Maiden

Este trabalho objetivou testar a variação da flexão estática da madeira de Eucalyptus grandis, ao longo da seção radial e sob quatro diferentes idades (10, 14, 20 e 25 anos), provenientes de talhões comerciais. As amostras foram retiradas da prancha diametral, de cada uma das 16 árvores (quatro para cada idade), tomadas de quatro posições eqüidistantes (0, 33, 66 e 100%), no sentido medula-casca, com oito repetições por posição. Verificou-se que os módulos de elasticidade (MOE) e de ruptura (MOR) apresentaram valores médios de 129.230 kgf/cm² e 854 kgf/cm², respectivamente, e ambos se mostraram positivamente correlacionados com a idade e com a posição radial, no sentido medula-casca. Os maiores valores foram conseguidos nas madeiras de 20 anos de idade e localizadas na região mais próxima da casca.

Variação da retrabilidade da madeira de Eucalyptus grandis Hill ex. Maiden, em função da idade e da posição radial no tronco

Este trabalho estudou a variação das retratibilidades volumétrica e linear da madeira de Eucalyptus grandis proveniente de talhões comerciais de quatro diferentes idades (10, 14, 20 e 25 anos) e posição radial. As amostras foram retiradas da tábua diametral, de cada uma das 16 árvores (quatro para cada idade), tomadas de quatro posições eqüidistantes (0, 33, 66 e 100%), no sentido medula-casca. Verificou-se, em todos os testes, o efeito da idade e da variação radial, observando uma correlação positiva dos efeitos em todos os parâmetros estudados. A espécie, como um todo, apresentou elevada instabilidade dimensional, com valores médios de retratibilidade volumétrica de 18,11% e retratibilidade radial, tangencial e longitudinal de 6,09%, 10,14% e 0,45%, respectivamente, além do fator anisotrópico de 1,71. À exceção da retratibilidade longitudinal e do fator anisotrópico, todos os demais parâmetros apresentaram tendência de crescimento com a idade e com a direção radial, no sentido medula-casca.

Influência de idade e da posição radial nas dimensões das fibras e dos vasos da madeira de Eucalyptus grandis Hill ex. Maiden

Objetivou-se neste trabalho avaliar a variação das dimensões das fibras e dos vasos da madeira de Eucalyptus grandis com quatro diferentes idades (10, 14, 20 e 25 anos), proveniente de talhões comerciais. A amostragem do material na árvore foi feita através da coleta de três discos, retirados da base e das extremidades das duas primeiras toras, ambas com o comprimento comercial de 3 m. De cada disco, retiraram-se cinco amostras, de dimensões 1,0 x 1,0 x 1,0 cm, tomadas de pontos eqüidistantes, correspondentes a 0; 25; 50; 75; e 100% da seção, no sentido radial medula-casca, fazendo-se a medição das fibras e dos vasos. Verificou-se, em todos os parâmetros, o efeito da idade e da variação radial, no sentido medula-casca, à exceção da largura e do diâmetro do lume das fibras; todos os demais parâmetros apresentaram correlação positiva.

Variação da densidade aparente e resistência à compressão paralela às fibras em função da intensidade de desbaste, adubação e posição radial em Eucalyptus grandis hill ex-maiden

O Eucalyptus grandis destaca-se pela produtividade e qualidade de sua madeira. O manejo florestal ideal das árvores em que se obtém maior proporção de madeira e melhor qualidade é uma das questões a serem consideradas nas pesquisas de E. grandis. Este trabalho teve como objetivo estudar a variação da densidade aparente e da resistência à compressão paralela às fibras em função da intensidade de desbaste, adubação e classe de diâmetro, na posição radial nas árvores de uma população de E. grandis de 21 anos de idade, manejada pelo sistema de desbastes seletivos com aplicação de fertilizantes na época do início dos desbastes, ou seja, aos 5 anos. Os fatores utilizados foram: três intensidades de desbastes seletivos (37, 50 e 75%), presença ou ausência de fertilizantes, três classes de diâmetro e cinco posições radiais. As influências dos fatores e de suas combinações foram avaliadas na densidade aparente e na resistência à compressão da madeira. A densidade aparente da madeira e a resistência à compressão foram influenciadas pelos fatores: adubo e classe de diâmetro em quase todas as posições radiais aumentaram no sentido da medula para a casca. Observou-se relação positiva entre densidade aparente, resistência à compressão e posição radial.

Modelling of combustion and sorbent reactions in three-dimensional flow environment of a circulating fluidized bed furnace

This thesis presents a three-dimensional, semi-empirical, steady state model for simulating the combustion, gasification, and formation of emissions in circulating fluidized bed (CFB) processes. In a large-scale CFB furnace, the local feeding of fuel, air, and other input materials, as well as the limited mixing rate of different reactants produce inhomogeneous process conditions. To simulate the real conditions, the furnace should be modelled three-dimensionally or the three-dimensional effects should be taken into account. The only available methods for simulating the large CFB furnaces three-dimensionally are semi-empirical models, which apply a relatively coarse calculation mesh and a combination of fundamental conservation equations, theoretical models and empirical correlations. The number of such models is extremely small. The main objective of this work was to achieve a model which can be applied to calculating industrial scale CFB boilers and which can simulate all the essential sub-phenomena: fluid dynamics, reactions, the attrition of particles, and heat transfer. The core of the work was to develop the model frame and the required sub-models for determining the combustion and sorbent reactions. The objective was reached, and the developed model was successfully used for studying various industrial scale CFB boilers combusting different types of fuel. The model for sorbent reactions, which includes the main reactions for calcitic limestones, was applied for studying the new possible phenomena occurring in the oxygen-fired combustion. The presented combustion and sorbent models and principles can be utilized in other model approaches as well, including other empirical and semi-empirical model approaches, and CFD based simulations. The main achievement is the overall model frame which can be utilized for the further development and testing of new sub-models and theories, and for concentrating the knowledge gathered from the experimental work carried out at bench scale, pilot scale and industrial scale apparatus, and from the computational work performed by other modelling methods.