La instrumentalización de procedimientos democráticos en Irak tras la caída de Sadam Husein: tensión entre legalidad y legitimidad (2003-2010)

Esta investigación tiene como objetivo evidenciar la tensión entre legalidad y legitimidad, a raíz de la intervención de Estados Unidos en Irak en el año 2003. Dicha tensión es el resultado de la implementación de procedimientos democráticos que promovieron cambios legales en el gobierno iraquí. Sin embargo, fue la instrumentalización de tales procedimientos lo que generó una falta de legitimidad del gobierno iraquí por parte de algunos sectores sociales, debido a los intereses económicos, políticos y sociales que tenían aquellos grupos que detentaban el poder. La investigación ofrece un análisis sobre Irak bajo los conceptos de democracia formal, democracia sustancial, legalidad y legitimidad, con el propósito de comprender de manera detallada el tipo de democracia que se estableció en Irak y las tensiones generadas en la sociedad iraquí.

Els Valors cristians dels arbres

Aquest article pretén analitzar els principals valors espirituals i simbòlics que presenten els arbres de la riba mediterrània europea en relació amb la religió cristiana. Article que es centra en les relacions entre arbres i cristianisme i, en conseqüència, és en els textos cristians on es capbussa per trobar referències simbòliques dels arbres mediterranis

Optimal management of natural resources. Accounting for heterogeneity

Dynamic optimization methods have become increasingly important over the last years in economics. Within the dynamic optimization techniques employed, optimal control has emerged as the most powerful tool for the theoretical economic analysis. However, there is the need to advance further and take account that many dynamic economic processes are, in addition, dependent on some other parameter different than time. One can think of relaxing the assumption of a representative (homogeneous) agent in macro- and micro-economic applications allowing for heterogeneity among the agents. For instance, the optimal adaptation and diffusion of a new technology over time, may depend on the age of the person that adopted the new technology. Therefore, the economic models must take account of heterogeneity conditions within the dynamic framework. This thesis intends to accomplish two goals. The first goal is to analyze and revise existing environmental policies that focus on defining the optimal management of natural resources over time, by taking account of the heterogeneity of environmental conditions. Thus, the thesis makes a policy orientated contribution in the field of environmental policy by defining the necessary changes to transform an environmental policy based on the assumption of homogeneity into an environmental policy which takes account of heterogeneity. As a result the newly defined environmental policy will be more efficient and likely also politically more acceptable since it is tailored more specifically to the heterogeneous environmental conditions. Additionally to its policy orientated contribution, this thesis aims making a methodological contribution by applying a new optimization technique for solving problems where the control variables depend on two or more arguments --- the so-called two-stage solution approach ---, and by applying a numerical method --- the Escalator Boxcar Train Method --- for solving distributed optimal control problems, i.e., problems where the state variables, in addition to the control variables, depend on two or more arguments. Chapter 2 presents a theoretical framework to determine optimal resource allocation over time for the production of a good by heterogeneous producers, who generate a stock externalit and derives government policies to modify the behavior of competitive producers in order to achieve optimality. Chapter 3 illustrates the method in a more specific context, and integrates the aspects of quality and time, presenting a theoretical model that allows to determine the socially optimal outcome over time and space for the problem of waterlogging in irrigated agricultural production. Chapter 4 of this thesis concentrates on forestry resources and analyses the optimal selective-logging regime of a size-distributed forest.

Els serveis socials a Catalunya. Una visió històrica

Es tracta d'una investigació historiogràfica de caràcter exploratori del fenomen dels serveis socials a Catalunya. La principal novetat de l'estudi resideix en l'enfocament històric, realitzat a partir de l'anàlisi institucional, normatiu i de les polítiques de serveis socials, centrat bàsicament en el territori català. El treball s'ha estructurat en tres partes. La primera, dedicada al projecte d'investigació, tracta del marc de referència, on es presenten unes reflexions inicials, s'efectuen unes precisions sobre la utilització dels termes i el mètode i es tracta de l'objecte d'estudi. A continuació es determina el tipus d'investigació i es delimita l'àmbit territorial i cronològic. En tercer lloc, s'estableix el marc teòric de referència i es formulen les principals qüestions i consideracions plantejades a l'entorn de la problemàtica d'estudi i el darrer apartat es refereix als mètodes i tècniques emprades, fent una especial referència a les dificultats sorgides en l'aplicació del mètode comparatiu i l'observació i, finalment, es concreten les dimensions operatives i les fonts documentals. Atesa la complexitat i la importància que tenia per a la investigació, es dedica íntegrament el capítol segon a l'establiment d'un marc de referència relatiu als conceptes tècnic i jurídic dels serveis socials, així com a altres termes propers, como la caritat, la beneficència, l'assistència social, l'acció social, la seguretat social o el treball social, entre altres. Al final es presenta una definició operativa per a utilitzar en el transcurs del treball. La segona part, que es titula "Una visió històrica de los serveis socials a Catalunya", es refereix pròpiament a la investigació. El primer capítol tracta dels antecedents, que s'inicien amb la pobresa i la caritat medievals, es revisen, després, les aportacions del Renaixement i els canvis produïts al final del absolutisme, així com els derivats de la industrialització, incloent les realitzacions de la Mancomunitat de Catalunya i de la Generalitat republicana, i, finalment, es revisa l'etapa franquista, tant les actuacions públiques com les innovadores experiències cíviques. El segon capítol es centra en l'etapa de la transició, quan es produeix la gestació dels serveis socials de la democràcia, on es tracta del paper desenvolupat per la iniciativa social i la Generalitat provisional, i s'analitza el tractament dels serveis socials en la Constitució espanyola i l'Estatut d'autonomia de Catalunya. El següent capítol es dedica a la dècada dels vuitanta i s'exposen les actuacions dels primers ajuntaments democràtics i la constitució i estructuració de la Generalitat autonòmica, així com les transferències rebudes de l'Estat i de la Seguretat Social en aquesta matèria. S'analitza la definició, l'estructuració i l'organització dels serveis a través de les principals lleis i reglaments que els regulen. En el capítol quart es tracta la dècada següent, on es produeixen transformacions remarcables. S'analitzen els significats dels canvis que es situen des de la fase excepcional de consens fins a una altra de certa normalitat democràtica. Es revisen els aspectes i les novetats principals, com la creació del Departament de Benestar Social, la Llei 4/1994 i els debats i plans d'actuació del mundo local, especialment les repercussions de les reformes organitzatives i les de les lleis territorials catalanes: creació de les comarques, la reducció del paper de les diputacions i la redistribució competencial local. Finalment, es constata el fort creixement dels serveis socials i la seva consolidació en el territori. A la tercera part es presenten les conclusions i consideracions referents a les qüestions plantejades inicialment en el projecte d'investigació. El darrer apartat es dedica a la bibliografia i els annexos.

Panchayati Raj em Goa

Goa commemorated in 2011 the golden jubilee of the end of colonialism (19 December 1961) and the beginning of its participation in the democratic institutions of India. The administrative decentralization known as Panchayati Raj is an ancient tradition in India, but it suffered dilution and breaks during centuries of Muslim and British domination. During the early years of Independence, the Union government was more worried about security concerns, and hence the policies of centralization. However, the second five-year plan and during the decades of 50 and 60 one could notice greater openness towards decentralization. This was done through Constitution Amendment Act nº 73 (1992) and the inclusion of article 243 in Part IX of the Constitution. The present essay seeks to clarify how the Panchayati Raj is the key to the success of the Indian democracy in the context of its demographic magnitude and ethnic, religious and linguistic diversities. Obviously, the challenges persist, but a country like India would be ungovernable without a democratic functionality at its bottom. It would be interesting to reflect and discover if Portugal has anything to benefit from the democratic experience of India and one of the fast growing emergent economies of the world.

A influência do protestantismo na educação do colégio Americano Batista em Pernambuco

Em início do século XX, no ano de 1905, no momento que se afigurou promissor, foi fundado o Colégio Americano Batista-C.A.B. Já predominava no Brasil o ensino religioso ministrado pelos Jesuítas vindos de Portugal. Fora um trabalho evangelístico-educacional, numa concepção de reeligere, numa cosmovisão unirreligiosa. Os conteúdos dessa disciplina ficavam sob a responsabilidade da igreja, visto ser ela considerada à única com habilidades plausíveis. José Eduardo Franco, (2006, p.311), em seu artigo O mito dos Jesuítas em Portugal - século XVI-XX menciona que “Portugal não teve, no seu território, nenhuma origem religiosa que tivesse obtido em tão elevado grau, o prestígio e o renome, que a partir de 1540, os Jesuítas conquistaram. Mas também nenhuma outra instituição religiosa foi julgada de forma tão dupla contraditória”. A despeito das possíveis qualidades do trabalho efetuado pelos Jesuítas, ou porventura, o aflorar de suas limitações, não é o que neste trabalho de pesquisa pretendemos analisar particularmente. Propomos investigar como o ensino religioso protestante tem influenciado a educação do Colégio Americano Batista desde as suas origens à atualidade sem excluir a promulgação da Lei de Diretrizes e Bases da Educação Nacional-9.394/96 e com a estrutura do ensino religioso mediante a produção dos Parâmetros Curriculares Nacionais-PCNs. Utilizamos como material empírico os depoimentos de docentes, discentes, e de toda a equipe técnica e pedagógica desta instituição. Pretendemos com tal metodologia assegurar a dimensão da influência do Ensino Religioso na educação como agente transformador na sociedade. Compreendemos a relevância desta pesquisa, à medida que observamos a interação do diálogo interreligioso e o avanço obtido quanto à concepção catequética numa passagem para uma nova concepção de ensino religioso, na concepção do sentido para a vida.

Análise de clima organizacional : um estudo com os militares do comando de fronteira Amapá

As organizações militares são sistemas constituídos com a finalidade de operacionalizar suas forças armadas para atuarem contra ameaças à integridade política do país. Dentro deste contexto é essencial que se tenha recursos humanos altamente qualificados, treinados, motivados e bem equipados para a preservação dos interesses vitais de uma nação. Desta forma analisar o clima organizacional do Comando de Fronteira Amapá é de fundamental importância para verificar aspectos que possam ocasionar deficiências no processo gerencial, bem como potencializar aspectos motivacionais inerentes à gestão de pessoas O trabalho realizado utilizou a pesquisa bibliográfica, de campo e documental na qual possibilitou o estudo de forma sistematizada, permitindo analisar o clima organizacional no Comando de Fronteira Amapá. A pesquisa foi realizada em caráter exploratório na qual empregou-se técnicas como o questionário e entrevistas com os militares da organização, na qual oportunizou-se a visualização de fatos através de observações na corporação.A análise da estrutura organizacional é primordial para a obtenção de fatores que possam prejudicar o clima organizacional e conseqüentemente a motivação dos militares, propondo estratégias a fim de melhorar o desempenho organizacional.

Can wavelets improve the representation of forecast error covariances in variational data assimilation?

Two wavelet-based control variable transform schemes are described and are used to model some important features of forecast error statistics for use in variational data assimilation. The first is a conventional wavelet scheme and the other is an approximation of it. Their ability to capture the position and scale-dependent aspects of covariance structures is tested in a two-dimensional latitude-height context. This is done by comparing the covariance structures implied by the wavelet schemes with those found from the explicit forecast error covariance matrix, and with a non-wavelet- based covariance scheme used currently in an operational assimilation scheme. Qualitatively, the wavelet-based schemes show potential at modeling forecast error statistics well without giving preference to either position or scale-dependent aspects. The degree of spectral representation can be controlled by changing the number of spectral bands in the schemes, and the least number of bands that achieves adequate results is found for the model domain used. Evidence is found of a trade-off between the localization of features in positional and spectral spaces when the number of bands is changed. By examining implied covariance diagnostics, the wavelet-based schemes are found, on the whole, to give results that are closer to diagnostics found from the explicit matrix than from the nonwavelet scheme. Even though the nature of the covariances has the right qualities in spectral space, variances are found to be too low at some wavenumbers and vertical correlation length scales are found to be too long at most scales. The wavelet schemes are found to be good at resolving variations in position and scale-dependent horizontal length scales, although the length scales reproduced are usually too short. The second of the wavelet-based schemes is often found to be better than the first in some important respects, but, unlike the first, it has no exact inverse transform.

Too much information? : Drama teachers’ perceptions of the value of subject knowledge

This paper reports on research into what drama teachers consider they really need to know as drama specialists. In the first instance the very concept of knowledge is discussed as it pertains to education in the arts as is the current situation in England regarding the extent to which new drama teachers’ subject specialist knowledge has been formally accredited and what the implications of this may be to an evolving curriculum. The research itself initially involved using a questionnaire to investigate the way in which drama teachers prioritised different aspects of professional knowledge. Results of this survey were deemed surprising enough to warrant further investigation through the use of interviews and a multiple-sorting exercise which revealed why the participants prioritised in the way they did. Informed by the work of Bourdieu, Foucault and Kelly, a model is proposed which may help explain the tensions experienced by drama teachers as they try to balance and prioritise different aspects of professional knowledge.

The life history legacy of evolutionary body size change in carnivores

We estimate the body sizes of direct ancestors of extant carnivores, and examine selected aspects of life history as a function not only of species' current size, but also of recent changes in size. Carnivore species that have undergone marked recent evolutionary size change show life history characteristics typically associated with species closer to the ancestral body size. Thus, phyletic giants tend to mature earlier and have larger litters of smaller offspring at shorter intervals than do species of the same body size that are not phyletic giants. Phyletic dwarfs, by contrast, have slower life histories than nondwarf species of the same body size. We discuss two possible mechanisms for the legacy of recent size change: lag (in which life history variables cannot evolve as quickly as body size, leading to species having the 'wrong' life history for their body size) and body size optimization (in which life history and hence body size evolve in response to changes in energy availability); at present, we cannot distinguish between these alternatives. Our finding that recent body size changes help explain residual variation around life history allometries shows that a more dynamic view of character change enables comparative studies to make more precise predictions about species traits in the context of their evolutionary background.

The impact of flavonoids on spatial memory in rodents: from behaviour to underlying hippocampal mechanisms

Emerging evidence suggests that a group of dietary-derived phytochemicals known as flavonoids are able to induce improvements in memory, learning and cognition. Flavonoids have been shown to modulate critical neuronal signalling pathways involved in processes of memory, and therefore are likely to affect synaptic plasticity and long-term potentiation mechanisms, widely considered to provide a basis for memory. Animal dietary supplementation studies have further shown that flavonoid-rich foods are able to reverse age-related spatial memory and spatial learning impairments. A more accurate understanding of how a particular spatial memory task works and of which aspects of memory and learning can be assessed in each case, are necessary for a correct interpretation of data relating to diet-cognition experiments. Further understanding of how specific behavioural tasks relate to the functioning of hippocampal circuitry during learning processes might be also elucidative of the specific observed memory improvements. The overall goal of this review is to give an overview of how the hippocampal circuitry operates as a memory system during behavioural tasks, which we believe will provide a new insight into the underlying mechanisms of the action of flavonoids on cognition.

Dietary modulation of the human colonic microbiota: updating the concept of prebiotics

Prebiotics are non-digestible (by the host) food ingredients that have a beneficial effect through their selective metabolism in the intestinal tract. Key to this is the specificity of microbial changes. The present paper reviews the concept in terms of three criteria: (a) resistance to gastric acidity, hydrolysis by mammalian enzymes and gastrointestinal absorption; (b) fermentation by intestinal microflora; (c) selective stimulation of the growth and/or activity of intestinal bacteria associated with health and wellbeing. The conclusion is that prebiotics that currently fulfil these three criteria are fructo-oligosaccharides, galacto-oligosaccharides and lactulose, although promise does exist with several other dietary carbohydrates. Given the range of food vehicles that may be fortified by prebiotics, their ability to confer positive microflora changes and the health aspects that may accrue, it is important that robust technologies to assay functionality are used. This would include a molecular-based approach to determine flora changes. The future use of prebiotics may allow species-level changes in the microbiota, an extrapolation into genera other than the bifidobacteria and lactobacilli, and allow preferential use in disease-prone areas of the body.

A sparse kernel density estimation algorithm using forward constrained regression

Using the classical Parzen window (PW) estimate as the target function, the sparse kernel density estimator is constructed in a forward constrained regression manner. The leave-one-out (LOO) test score is used for kernel selection. The jackknife parameter estimator subject to positivity constraint check is used for the parameter estimation of a single parameter at each forward step. As such the proposed approach is simple to implement and the associated computational cost is very low. An illustrative example is employed to demonstrate that the proposed approach is effective in constructing sparse kernel density estimators with comparable accuracy to that of the classical Parzen window estimate.

A modular head/eye platform for real-time reactive vision

This paper describes the design, implementation and testing of a high speed controlled stereo “head/eye” platform which facilitates the rapid redirection of gaze in response to visual input. It details the mechanical device, which is based around geared DC motors, and describes hardware aspects of the controller and vision system, which are implemented on a reconfigurable network of general purpose parallel processors. The servo-controller is described in detail and higher level gaze and vision constructs outlined. The paper gives performance figures gained both from mechanical tests on the platform alone, and from closed loop tests on the entire system using visual feedback from a feature detector.