Advanced SPM studies on the growth of ultrathin films of organic semiconductors at metal and dielectric interfaces

Many studies on the morphology, molecular orientation, device performance, substrate nature and growth parameter dependence have been carried out since the proposal of Sexithiophene (6T) for organic electronics [ ] However, these studies were mostly performed on films thicker than 20nm and without specifically addressing the relationship between morphology and molecular orientation within the nano and micro structures of ultrathin films of 0-3 monolayers. In 2004, the observation that in OFETs only the first few monolayers at the interface in contact with the gate insulator contribute to the charge transport [ ], underlined the importance to study submonolayer films and their evolution up to a few monolayers of thickness with appropriate experimental techniques. We present here a detailed Non-contact Atomic Force Microscopy and Scanning Tunneling Microscopy study on various substrates aiming at the investigation of growth mechanisms. Most reported similar studies are performed on ideal metals in UHV. However it is important to investigate the details of organic film growth on less ideal and even technological surfaces and device testpatterns. The present work addresses the growth of ultra thin organic films in-situ and quasi real-time by NC-AFM. An organic effusion cell is installed to evaporate the organic material directly onto the SPM sample scanning stage.

Functionalized surfaces and surface functionalization of nanomaterials

Nature leads, we follow. But nanotechnologists are in hot pursuit, in designing controllable structures that can mimic naturally occurring and artificially synthesized materials on a common platform. The supramolecular chemistry concerns the investigation of nature principles to produce fascinating complexed and functional molecular assemblies, as well as the utilization of these principles to generate novel devices and materials, potentially useful for sensing, catalysis, transport and other applications in medical or engineering science. The work presented in this thesis is a compilation of different synthetic methods to achieve inorganic-organic hybrid nanomaterials. Silicatein, a protein enzyme, which acts both as a catalyst and template for the formation of silica needles in marine sponges, has been used for the biosynthesis of semiconductor metal oxides on surfaces. Silicatein was immobilized on gold (111) surfaces using alkane thiol, as well as on a novel self-assembly of NTA on top of a “cushion” of reactive ester polymer has been successfully employed to make functionalised surfaces. The immobilization of silicatein on surfaces was monitored by surface plasmon spectroscopy, atomic force microscopy and confocal laser scanning microscopy. Surface bound silicatein retains its biocatalytic activity, which was demonstrated by monitoring its hydrocatalytic activity to catalyse the synthesis of biosilica, biotitania, and biozirconia. The synthesis of semiconductor metal oxides was characterized using scanning electron microscopy. This hydrolytic biocatalyst is used to synthesize the gold nanoparticles. The gold nanoparticles are formed by reduction of tetrachloroaurate, AuCl4-, by the action of sulfhydryl groups hidden below the surface groups of the protein. The resulting gold nanoparticles which are stabilized by surface bound silicatein further aggregate to form Au nanocrystals. The shape of the nanocrystals obtained by using recombinant silicatein is controlled through chiral induction by the protein during the nucleation of the nanocrystals. As an extension of this work, TiO2 nanowires were functionalized using polymeric ligand which incorporates the nitrilotriacetic acid (NTA) linker in the back bone to immobilize His-tagged silicatein onto the TiO2 nanowires. The surface bound protein not only retains its original hydrolytic properties, but also acts as a reductant for AuCl4- in the synthesis of hybrid TiO2/silicatein/Au nanocomposites. Functionalized, monocrystalline rutile TiO2 nanorods were prepared from TiCl4 in aqueous solution in the presence of dopamine. The surface bound organic ligand controls the morphology as well as the crystallinity and the phase selection of TiO2. The surface amine groups can be tailored further with functional molecules such as dyes. As an example, this surface functionality is used for the covalent binding of a fluorescent dye,4-chloro-7- nitrobenzylurazene (NBD) to the TiO2 nanorods. The polymeric ligands have been used successfully for the in-situ and post-functionalization of TiO2 nanoparticles. Besides to chelating dopamine anchor group the multifunctional ligand system presented here incorporates a modifier molecule which allows the binding of functional molecules (here the dyes pyrene, NBD, and Texas Red) as well as additional entities which allow tailoring the solubility of inorganic nanocrystals in different solvents. A novel method for the surface functionalization of fullerene-type MoS2 nanoparticles and subsequently binding these nanoparticles onto TiO2 nanowires has been reported using polymeric ligands. The procedure involves the complexation of IF-MoS2 with a combination of Ni2+ via an umbrella-type nitrilotriacetic acid (NTA) and anchoring them to the sidewalls of TiO2 nanowires utilizing the hydroxyl groups of dopamine present in the main contents of polymeric ligand. A convenient method for the synthesis of Au/CdS nanocomposites has been presented, which were achieved through the novel method of thiol functionalization of gold colloids. The thermodynamically most stable phase of ZrO2 (cubic) has been obtained at much lower temperature (180°C). These nanoparticles are highly blue fluorescent, with a high surface area.

Extended arm polyphenylene dendrimers

In order to eliminate the de Gennes packing problem, which usually limits the attainable size of dendrimers, a new branching unit containing para-tetraphenylene ethynyl arms has been synthesized and utilized in the preparation of dendrimers of the Müllen type. The divergent principle of synthesis, based on the Dilthey reaction, could be carried up to sixth generation which contains 2776 benzene rings and possesses a diameter in the 27 nm range ("exploded dendrimer"). Monodispersity and dimensions of this and the lower generation species have been studied by MALDI-TOF MS (including the very recent superconducting tunnel junction detector), by size-exclusion chromatography, dynamic light scattering, transmission electron microscopy, and atomic force microscopy. Interesting features, apart from the huge dimension, are the low density and high porosity of these giant molecules which cause extensive aggregation in the gas phase, flattening on solid support (AFM) and the ready incorporation of guest molecules in the condensed phase. Since the synthesis of the para-tetraphenylene arms is quite elaborate, similar dendrimers containing para-terphenylene arms have been prepared; they are accessible more economically ("semi-exploded dendrimers"). It has been shown that they in several aspects mimic the features of the "exploded dendrimers". In order to take advantage of the presence of large internal cavities in this dendrimer type, dendrons containing -C≡C- triple bonds have also been incorporated. Surprisingly, they are readily hydrogenated under the condition of heterogeneous catalysis (Pd/C) which demonstrates the large size of the cavities. As revealed by a quartz microbalance study the post-hydrogenation dendrimers are less prone to incorporate guest molecules than before hydrogenation. Obviously, the more flexible nature of the former reduces porosity, it also leads to significant shrinkage. An interesting perspective is the use of homogeneous hydrogenation catalysts of variable size with the aim of determining the dimension of internal free space.

Deposizione elettrochimica di film polimerici foto-attivi per la realizzazione di celle solari

Plastic solar cells bear the potential for large-scale power generation based on flexible, lightweight, inexpensive materials. Since the discovery of the photo-induced electron transfer from a conjugated polymer (electron-donor) to fullerene or its derivatives molecules (electron-acceptors), followed by the introduction of the bulk heterojunction concept which means donors and acceptors blended together to realize the fotoactive layer, materials and deposition techniques have been extensively studied. In this work, electrochemical-deposition methods of polymeric conductive films were studied in order to realize bulk heterojunction solar cells. Indium Tin Oxide (ITO) glass electrodes modified with a thin layer of poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT) were electrochemically prepared under potentiodynamic and potentiostatic conditions; then those techniques were applied for the electrochemical co-deposition of donor and acceptor on modified ITO electrode to produce the active layer (blend). For the deposition of the electron-donor polymer the electropolymerization of many functionalized thiophene monomers was investigated while, as regards acceptors, fullerene was used first, then the study was focused on its derivative PCBM ([6,6]-phenyl-C61-butyric acid methyl ester). The polymeric films obtained (PEDOT and blend) were electrochemically and spectrophotometrically characterized and the film thicknesses were evaluated by atomic force microscopy (AFM). Finally, to check the performances and the efficiency of the realized solar cells, tests were carried out under standard conditions. Nowadays bulk heterojunction solar cells are still poorly efficient to be competitively commercialized. A challenge will be to find new materials and better deposition techniques in order to obtain better performances. The research has led to several breakthroughs in efficiency, with a power conversion efficiency approaching 5 %. The efficiency of the solar cells produced in this work is even lower (lower than 1 %). Despite all, solar cells of this type are interesting and may represent a cheaper and easier alternative to traditional silicon-based solar panels.

Functional thin films fabricated by plasma polymerization and their biological applications

Plasma polymerization technique is widely accepted as an effective and simple method for the preparation of functional thin films. By careful choice of precursors and deposition parameters, plasma polymers bearing various functional groups could be easily obtained. In this work, I explored the deposition of four kinds of plasma polymerised functional thin films, including the protein-resistant coatings, the thermosensitive coatings, as well as, the coatings bearing amine or epoxide groups. The deposited plasma polymers were characterized by various techniques, such as X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, atom force microscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, surface plasmon resonance spectroscopy, optical waveguide spectroscopy, and so on. As expected, high retention of various functional groups could be achieved either at low plasma input power or at low duty cycle (duty cycle = Ton/(Ton+Toff)). The deposited functional thin films were found to contain some soluble materials, which could be removed simply by extraction treatment. Besides the thermosentive plasma polymer (see Chapter 9), other plasma polymers were used for developing DNA sensors. DNA sensing in this study was achieved using surface plasmon enhanced fluorescence spectroscopy. The nonfouling thin films (i.e., ppEO2, plasma polymerization of di(ethylene glycol) monovinyl ether) were used to make a multilayer protein-resistant DNA sensor (see Chapter 5). The resulted DNA sensors show good anti-fouling properties towards either BSA or fibrinogen. This sensor was successfully employed to discriminate different DNA sequences from protein-containing sample solutions. In Chapter 6, I investigated the immobilization of DNA probes onto the plasma polymerized epoxide surfaces (i.e., ppGMA, plasma polymerization of glycidyl methacrylate). The ppGMA prepared at a low duty cycle showed good reactivity with amine-modified DNA probes in a mild basic environment. A DNA sensor based on the ppGMA was successfully used to distinguish different DNA sequences. While most DNA detection systems rely on the immobilization of DNA probes onto sensor surfaces, a new homogeneous DNA detection method was demonstrated in Chapter 8. The labeled PNA serves not only as the DNA catcher recognizing a particular target DNA, but also as a fluorescent indicator. Plasma polymerized allylamine (ppAA) films were used here to provide a positively charged surface.

Surface layer formation in polymer melts and in solutions

In this work the surface layer formation in polymer melts and in polymer solutions have been investigated with the atomic force microscope (AFM). In polymer melts, the formation of an immobile surface layer results in a steric repulsion, which can be measured by the AFM. From former work it is know, that polydimethyl siloxane (PDMS) forms a stable surface layer for molecular weights above 12 kDa. In the present thesis, polyisoprene (PI) was investigated apart from PDMS, by a)measuring the steric surface interactions and b)measuring the surface slip in hydrodynamic experiments. If a polymer flows over a surface, the flow velocity at the surface is larger then zero. If case of a surface layer formation the flow plane changes to the top of the adsorbed layer and the surface slip is reduced to zero. By measuring the surface slip in hydrodynamic experiments, it is therefore possible to determine the presence of a stable surface layer. The results show no stable repulsion for PI and only a small decrease of the surface slip. This indicates that PI does not form a stable surface layer, but is only adsorbed weakly to the surface. Furthermore for 8 kDa PDMS the timescale of the formation of a surface layer was investigated by changing themaximal force the tip applied to the surface. With a repulsive force present, applying a higher force than 15 nN resulted in a destruction of the surface layer, indicated by attractive forces. Reducing the applied force below 15 nN then resulted in an increase of the repulsion to the former state during one minute, thus indicating that a surface layer can be formed within one minute even under the influence of continuous measurements. As a next step, mixtures of two PDMS homopolymers with different chain lengths have been investigated. The aim was to verify theoretical predictions that shorter chains should predominate at the surface due to their smaller loss in conformational entropy. The measurements where done in dependence of the volume fractions of short and long chain PMDS. The results confirmed the short chain dominance for all mixtures with less then 90 vol.% long chain PDMS. Surface layer formation in solution was investigated for superplasticizers which are industrially used as an additive to cement. They change the surface interaction between the cement grains from attractive to repulsive and the freshlymixed cement paste therefore becomes liquid. The aimin this part of the thesis was, to investigate cement particle interactions in a close to real environment. Therefore calcium silicate hydrate phases have been precipitated onto an AFM tip and onto a calcite crystal and the interaction between these surfaces have beenmeasured with and without addition of superplasticizers. The measurements confirmed the change from attraction to repulsion upon addition of superplasticizers. The repulsive steric interaction increased with the length of the sidechain of the superplasticizer, and the dependence of the range of the steric interactions on the sidechain length indicated that the sidechains are in a coiled conformation.

Untersuchung der lateralen Organisation und Phasenumwandlung von festkörperunterstützten Lipidmembranen

Im ersten Teil der Arbeit wurde das Bindungsverhalten von Annexin A1 und Annexin A2t an festkörperunterstützte Lipidmembranen aus POPC und POPS untersucht. Für beide Proteine konnte mit Hilfe der Fluoreszenzmikroskopie gezeigt werden, dass irreversible Bindung nur in Anwesenheit von POPS auftritt. Durch rasterkraftmikroskopische Aufnahmen konnte die laterale Organisation der Annexine auf der Lipidmembran dargestellt werden. Beide Proteine lagern sich in Form lateraler Aggregate (zweidimensionale Domänen) auf der Oberfläche an, außerdem ist der Belegungsgrad und die Größe der Domänen von der Membranzusammensetzung und der Calciumkonzentration abhängig. Mit zunehmendem POPS-Gehalt und Calciumkonzentration steigt der Belegungsgrad an und der mittlere Domänenradius wird kleiner. Diese Ergebnisse konnten in Verbindung mit detaillierten Bindungsstudien des Annexins A1 mit der Quarzmikrowaage verwendet werden, um ein Bindungsmodell auf Basis einer heterogenen Oberfläche zu entwickeln. Auf einer POPC-reichen Matrix findet reversible Adsorption statt und auf POPS-reichen Domänen irreversible Adsorption. Durch die Anpassung von dynamischen Monte Carlo-Simulationen basierend auf einer zweidimensionalen zufälligen sequentiellen Adsorption konnten Erkenntnisse über die Membranstruktur und die kinetischen Ratenkonstanten in Abhängigkeit von der Calciumkonzentration und der Inkubationszeit des Proteins gewonnen werden. Die irreversible Bindung ist in allen Calciumkonzentrationsbereichen schneller als die reversible. Außerdem zeigt die irreversible Adsorption eine deutlich stärkere Abhängigkeit von der Calciumkonzentration. Ein kleinerer Belegungsgrad bei niedrigen Ca2+-Gehalten ist hauptsächlich durch die Abnahme der verfügbaren Bindungsplätze auf der Oberfläche zu erklären. Die gute Übereinstimmung der aus den Monte Carlo-Simulationen erhaltenen Domänenstrukturen mit den rasterkraftmikroskopischen Aufnahmen und die Tatsache, dass sich die simulierten Resonanzfrequenzverläufe problemlos an die experimentellen Kurven aus den QCM-Messungen anpassen ließen, zeigt die gute Anwendbarkeit des entwickelten Simulationsprogramms auf die Adsorption von Annexin A1. Die Extraktion der kinetischen Parameter aus dem zweidimensionalen RSA-Modell ist mit Sicherheit einem einfachen Langmuir-Ansatz überlegen. Bei einem Langmuir-Modell erfolgt eine integrale Erfassung einer einzelnen makroskopischen Geschwindigkeitskonstante, während durch das RSA-Modell eine differenzierte Betrachtung des reversiblen und irreversiblen Bindungsprozesses möglich ist. Zusätzlich lassen sich mikroskopische Informationen über die Oberflächenbeschaffenheit gewinnen. Im zweiten Teil der Arbeit wurde das thermotrope Phasenverhalten von festkörperunterstützten Phospholipidbilayern untersucht. Dazu wurden mikrostrukturierte, frei stehende Membranstreifen präpariert und mit Hilfe der bildgebenden Ellipsometrie untersucht. Dadurch konnten die temperaturabhängigen Verläufe der Schichtdicke und der lateralen Membranausdehnung parallel beobachtet werden. Die ermittelten Phasenübergangstemperaturen von DMPC, diC15PC und DPPC lagen 2 - 3 °C oberhalb der Literaturwerte für vesikuläre Systeme. Außerdem wurde eine deutliche Verringerung der Kooperativität der Phasenumwandlung gefunden, was auf einen großen Einfluss des Substrats bei den festkörperunterstützten Lipidmembranen schließen lässt. Zusätzlich wurde ein nicht systematischer Zusammenhang der Ergebnisse von der Oberflächenpräparation gefunden, der es unabdingbar macht, bei Untersuchungen von festkörperunterstützten Substraten einen internen Standard einzuführen. Bei der Analyse des thermotropen Phasenübergangsverhaltens von DMPC/Cholesterol - Gemischen wurde daher die individuelle Adressierbarkeit der strukturierten Lipidmembranen ausgenutzt und ein Lipidstreifen aus reinem DMPC als Standard verwendet. Auf diese Weise konnte gezeigt werden, dass das für Phospholipide typische Phasenübergangsverhalten ab 30 mol% Cholesterol in der Membran nicht mehr vorhanden ist. Dies ist auf die Bildung einer nur durch höhere Sterole induzierten fluiden Phase mit hoch geordneten Acylketten zurückzuführen. Abschließend konnte durch die Zugabe von Ethanol zu einer mikrostrukturierten DMPC-Membran die Bildung eines interdigitierten Bilayers nachgewiesen werden. Die bildgebende Ellipsometrie ist eine sehr gute Methode zur Untersuchung festkörperunterstützter Lipidmembranen, da sie über ein sehr gutes vertikales und ein ausreichendes laterales Auflösungsvermögen besitzt. Sie ist darin zwar einem Rasterkraftmikroskop noch unterlegen, besitzt dafür aber eine einfachere Handhabung beim Umgang mit Flüssigkeiten und in der Temperierung, eine schnellere Bildgebung und ist als optische Methode nicht-invasiv.

Ion channels in mixed tethered bilayer lipid membranes

Mixed tethered bilayer lipid membranes (tBLMs) are described based on the self-assembly of a monolayer on template stripped gold, of an archea analogue thiolipid, 2,3-di-o-phytanyl-sn-glycerol-1-tetraethylene glycol-D,L--lipoic acid ester lipid (DPTL), and a newly designed dilution molecule, tetraethylene glycol-D,L--lipoic acid ester (TEGL). The usage of spacer and addition of extra dilution molecules between the substrate and the bilayer is that this architecture provides an ionic reservoir underneath the membrane, avoiding direct contact of the embedded membrane proteins with the gold electrodes and increasing the lateral diffusion of the bilayer, thus allowing for the incorporation of complex channels proteins which are failed in non-diluted systems. The tBLM is completed by fusion of liposomes made from a mixture of 1,2-diphythanolyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DPhyPC), cholesterol, and 1,2-diphytanoyl-sn-Glycero-3-phosphate (DPhyPG) in a molar ratio of 6:3:1. Varying the mixing ratio, the optimum mixing ratio was obtained at a dilution factor of DPTL and TEGL at 90%:10%. Only under these conditions, the mixed tBLM showed electrical properties, as shown by EIS, which are comparable to a BLM. With higher dilution factors, a defect-free lipid bilayer was not formed. Formation of bilayers have been characterized by different techniques, such as surface plasmon resonance (SPR), electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), atomic force microscopy (AFM), and quartz crystal microbalance (QCM). Different proteins such as hemolysin, melittin, gramicidin, M2, Maxi-K, nAChR and bacteriohodopsin are incorporated into these tBLMs as shown by SPR and EIS studies. Ionic conductivity at 0 V vs. Ag|AgCl, 3M KCl were measured by EIS measurements. Our results indicate that these proteins have been successfully incorporated into a very stable tBLM environment in a functionally active form. Therefore, we conclude that the mixed tBLMs have been successfully designed as a general platform for biosensing and screening purposes of membrane proteins.

Abscheidung und Charakterisierung von Plasmapolymerschichten auf Fluorkohlenstoff- und Siloxan-Basis

In dieser Arbeit wurden Fluorkohlenstoff-basierte und siliziumorganische Plasmapolymerfilme hergestellt und hinsichtlich ihrer strukturellen und funktionalen Eigenschaften untersucht. Beide untersuchten Materialsysteme sind in der Beschichtungstechnologie von großem wissenschaftlichen und anwendungstechnischen Interesse. Die Schichtabscheidung erfolgte mittels plasmachemischer Gasphasenabscheidung (PECVD) an Parallelplattenreaktoren. Bei den Untersuchungen zur Fluorkohlenstoff-Plasmapolymerisation stand die Herstellung ultra-dünner, d. h. weniger als 5 nm dicker Schichten im Vordergrund. Dies wurde durch gepulste Plasmaanregung und Verwendung eines Gasgemisches aus Trifluormethan (CHF3) und Argon realisiert. Die Bindungsstruktur der Schichten wurden in Abhängigkeit der eingespeisten Leistung, die den Fragmentationsgrad der Monomere im Plasma bestimmt, analysiert. Hierzu wurden die Röntgen-Photoelektronenspektroskopie (XPS), Rasterkraftmikroskopie (AFM), Flugzeit-Sekundärionenmassenspektrometrie (ToF-SIMS) und Röntgenreflektometrie (XRR) eingesetzt. Es zeigte sich, dass die abgeschiedenen Schichten ein homogenes Wachstumsverhalten und keine ausgeprägten Interfacebereiche zum Substrat und zur Oberfläche hin aufweisen. Die XPS-Analysen deuten darauf hin, dass Verkettungsreaktionen von CF2-Radikalen im Plasma eine wichtige Rolle für den Schichtbildungsprozess spielen. Weiterhin konnte gezeigt werden, dass der gewählte Beschichtungsprozess eine gezielte Reduzierung der Benetzbarkeit verschiedener Substrate ermöglicht. Dabei genügen Schichtdicken von weniger als 3 nm zur Erreichung eines teflonartigen Oberflächencharakters mit Oberflächenenergien um 20 mN/m. Damit erschließen sich neue Applikationsmöglichkeiten ultra-dünner Fluorkohlenstoffschichten, was anhand eines Beispiels aus dem Bereich der Nanooptik demonstriert wird. Für die siliziumorganischen Schichten unter Verwendung des Monomers Hexamethyldisiloxan (HMDSO) galt es zunächst, diejenigen Prozessparameter zu identifizieren, die ihren organischen bzw. glasartigen Charakter bestimmen. Hierzu wurde der Einfluss von Leistungseintrag und Zugabe von Sauerstoff als Reaktivgas auf die Elementzusammensetzung der Schichten untersucht. Bei niedrigen Plasmaleistungen und Sauerstoffflüssen werden vor allem kohlenstoffreiche Schichten abgeschieden, was auf eine geringere Fragmentierung der Kohlenwasserstoffgruppen zurückgeführt wurde. Es zeigte sich, dass die Variation des Sauerstoffanteils im Prozessgas eine sehr genaue Steuerbarkeit der Schichteigenschaften ermöglicht. Mittels Sekundär-Neutralteilchen-Massenspektrometrie (SNMS) konnte die prozesstechnische Realisierbarkeit und analytische Quantifizierbarkeit von Wechselschichtsystemen aus polymerartigen und glasartigen Lagen demonstriert werden. Aus dem Intensitätsverhältnis von Si:H-Molekülen zu Si-Atomen im SNMS-Spektrum ließ sich der Wasserstoffgehalt bestimmen. Weiterhin konnte gezeigt werden, dass durch Abscheidung von HMDSO-basierten Gradientenschichten eine deutliche Reduzierung von Reibung und Verschleiß bei Elastomerbauteilen erzielt werden kann.

Mimicking the pre-hairpin intermediate of gp41

A novel screening platform for potential retroviral fusion inhibitors on the basis of fully functional membrane‐anchored coiled coil lipopeptide receptors has been established. The work comprises the scrutiny of lateral organization of functional lipids in phase separated bilayers and an in‐depth investigation of the biophysical properties of lipopeptide‐based receptors. Lateral sorting of lipids was detected by the recognition of streptavidin of biotinylated lipids in phase separated bilayers and by nanoscopic patterns in mixed fluorocarbon / hydrocarbon lipid bilayers, employing temperature controlled atomic force microscopy (AFM) as a versatile characterization method. Particular features of fluorocarbon bilayers were additionally investigated in great detail by means of ellipsometry and ATR‐IR spectroscopy. Lipopeptide‐receptors were synthesized on the basis of a robust and reliable in situ coupling reaction by coupling terminal cysteine modified receptor‐peptides to a maleimide functionalized lipid bilayer. Receptor functionality of the lipopeptides was visualized by specific binding of vesicles and nanoparticles tracked by a multiplicity of characterization methods, such as AFM, ellipsometry, CLSM and fluorescence spectroscopy. Finally, in situ coupling of viral peptides, originating from the fusion protein of HIV resulted in a mimic of the pre‐hairpin intermediate of gp41. Structural analysis of N36‐lipopepides by means of CD‐spectroscopy in combination with FT‐IR spectroscopy revealed a coiled coil assembly of lipopeptides, which render the aggregates fully functional receptors for potent fusion inhibitors. Thereby, reversible inhibitor binding of T20 and the corresponding C‐ peptides was detected by AFM and ellipsometry, rendering coiled coil lipopeptides a new promising technique for screening of retroviral fusion inhibitors.

Nanoscale-electrical and optical properties of iii-nitrides

III-nitrides are wide-band gap materials that have applications in both electronics and optoelectronic devices. Because to their inherent strong polarization properties, thermal stability and higher breakdown voltage in Al(Ga,In)N/GaN heterostructures, they have emerged as strong candidates for high power high frequency transistors. Nonetheless, the use of (Al,In)GaN/GaN in solid state lighting has already proved its success by the commercialization of light-emitting diodes and lasers in blue to UV-range. However, devices based on these heterostructures suffer problems associated to structural defects. This thesis primarily focuses on the nanoscale electrical characterization and the identification of these defects, their physical origin and their effect on the electrical and optical properties of the material. Since, these defects are nano-sized, the thesis deals with the understanding of the results obtained by nano and micro-characterization techniques such as atomic force microscopy(AFM), current-AFM, scanning kelvin probe microscopy (SKPM), electron beam induced current (EBIC) and scanning tunneling microscopy (STM). This allowed us to probe individual defects (dislocations and cracks) and unveil their electrical properties. Taking further advantage of these techniques,conduction mechanism in two-dimensional electron gas heterostructures was well understood and modeled. Secondarily, origin of photoluminescence was deeply investigated. Radiative transition related to confined electrons and photoexcited holes in 2DEG heterostructures was identified and many body effects in nitrides under strong optical excitations were comprehended.

An alternative blocking layer for titanium dioxide (TiO 2) solar cell applications

In hybrid organic solar cells a blocking layer between transparent electrode and nanocrystalline titania particles is essential to prevent short-circuiting and current loss through recombination at the electrode interface. Here the preparation of a uniform hybrid blocking layer which is composed of conducting titania nanoparticles embedded in an insulating polymer derived ceramic is presented. This blocking layer is prepared by sol-gel chemistry where an amphiphilic block copolymer is used as a templating agent. A novel poly(dimethylsiloxane) containing amphiphilic block copolymer poly(ethyleneglycol)methylethermethacrylate-block-poly(dimethylsiloxane)-block-poly(ethyleneglycol)methylethermethacrylate has been synthesized to act as the templating agent. Plasma treatment uncovered titania surface from any polymer. Annealing at 450°C under nitrogen resulted in anatase titania with polymer derived silicon oxycarbide ceramic. Electrical characterization by conductive scanning probe microscopy experiments revealed a percolating titania network separated by an insulating ceramic matrix. Scanning Kelvin probe force microscopy showed predominant presence of titania particles on the surface creating a large surface area for dye absorption. The uniformity of the percolating structures was proven by microbeam grazing incidence small angle x-ray scattering. First applications in hybrid organic solar cells in comparison with conventional titanium dioxide blocking layer containing devices revealed 15 fold increases in corresponding efficiencies. Poly(dimethylsiloxane)-block-poly(ethyleneglycol)methylethermethacrylate and poly(ethyleneoxide)-poly(dimethylsiloxane)methylmethacrylate diblock copolymers were also synthesized. Their titania nanocomposite films were compared with the integrated blocking layer. Liner poly(ethyleneoxide) containing diblock copolymer resulted in highly ordered foam like structures. The effect of heating temperature rise to 600°C and 1000°C on titania morphology was investigated by scanning electron and force microscopy and x-ray scattering. Sol-gel contents, hydrochloric acid, titania precursor and amphiphilic triblock copolymer were altered to see their effect on titania morphology. Increase in block copolymer content resulted in titania particles of diameter 15-20 nm.

DNA block copolymers – from micelles to machines

DNA block copolymer, a new class of hybrid material composed of a synthetic polymer and an oligodeoxynucleotide segment, owns unique properties which can not be achieved by only one of the two polymers. Among amphiphilic DNA block copolymers, DNA-b-polypropylene oxide (PPO) was chosen as a model system, because PPO is biocompatible and has a Tg < 0 °C. Both properties might be essential for future applications in living systems. During my PhD study, I focused on the properties and the structures of DNA-b-PPO molecules. First, DNA-b-PPO micelles were studied by scanning force microscopy (SFM) and fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS). In order to control the size of micelles without re-synthesis, micelles were incubated with template-independent DNA polymerase TdT and deoxynucleotide triphosphates in reaction buffer solution. By carrying out ex-situ experiments, the growth of micelles was visualized by imaging in liquid with AFM. Complementary measurements with FCS and polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE) confirmed the increase in size. Furthermore, the growing process was studied with AFM in-situ at 37 °C. Hereby the growth of individual micelles could be observed. In contrast to ex-situ reactions, the growth of micelles adsorbed on mica surface for in-situ experiments terminated about one hour after the reaction was initiated. Two reasons were identified for the termination: (i) block of catalytic sites by interaction with the substrate and (ii) reduced exchange of molecules between micelles and the liquid environment. In addition, a geometrical model for AFM imaging was developed which allowed deriving the average number of mononucleotides added to DNA-b-PPO molecules in dependence on the enzymatic reaction time (chapter 3). Second, a prototype of a macroscopic DNA machine made of DNA-b-PPO was investigated. As DNA-b-PPO molecules were amphiphilic, they could form a monolayer at the air-water interface. Using a Langmuir film balance, the energy released owing to DNA hybridization was converted into macroscopic movements of the barriers in the Langmuir trough. A specially adapted Langmuir trough was build to exchange the subphase without changing the water level significantly. Upon exchanging the subphase with complementary DNA containing buffer solution, an increase of lateral pressure was observed which could be attributed to hybridization of single stranded DNA-b-PPO. The pressure versus area/molecule isotherms were recorded before and after hybridization. I also carried out a series of control experiments, in order to identify the best conditions of realizing a DNA machine with DNA-b-PPO. To relate the lateral pressure with molecular structures, Langmuir Blodgett (LB) films were transferred to highly ordered pyrolytic graphite (HOPG) and mica substrates at different pressures. These films were then investigated with AFM (chapter 4). At last, this thesis includes studies of DNA and DNA block copolymer assemblies with AFM, which were performed in cooperation with different group of the Sonderforschungsbereich 625 “From Single Molecules to Nanoscopically Structured Materials”. AFM was proven to be an important method to confirm the formation of multiblock copolymers and DNA networks (chapter 5).

Fluorescent ionene-dye nanoparticles by electrostatic self-assembly

It is investigated that the association of linear cationic model polyelectrolytes with oppositely charged pyrenetetrasulfonate (PY) in aqueous solution. For this purpose water soluble ionenes were prepared via Menschutkin reaction from 1-4-diazabicyclo [2.2.2] octane and e.g. 1,6-dibromohexane and 1,4 dibromotransbuten. The complex formation between dye molecules PY and oppositely charged ionenes (PD4, PD6, PD4-2 and PD4coPD6) of different chemical structures in aqueous solution was studied by light scattering (LS), small angle neutron scattering (SANS), UV-Vis, fluorescence spectroscopy and atomic force microscopy (AFM). Spectrophotometric titration results revealed that PY molecules were bind to ionenes cooperative process due to π-π interaction. Cooperative binding constant KD was determined as 6.4 x 10^6 M^-1 (+ or - 10^5 M^-1). It was found that binding mode and geometry of PY is predominantly depending on inter-charge distances of corresponding ionenes. Resultant complexes have exhibited size and structure variation as a function of charge ratio (L), ionic strength, inter-charge distances. Spherical dye-ionene complexes of which radius of gyration ranging between (RG) 50 and 190 nm have been observed in PD4-PY system while this was not possible with a different ionene (PD6) or either case ionene excess. It was found that most of the PD4-PY complexes had RG / RH ~ 0.78. Based on the AFM and LS results, spherical complexes have certain colloidal stability and their size can effectively controlled by changing the L.

Synthese und Untersuchung aromatischer Amide und aramidbasierter Blockcopolymere

Aromatische Amide mit p-Verknüpfung bilden die wohl steifste und härteste Klasse organischer Moleküle. Ihre Oligomere und Polymere sind Materialien mit extremer Stabilität und chemischer Robustheit. Die vorliegende Arbeit beschreibt die Synthese wohldefinierter Oligo-(p-benzamid)e (OPBA) bis zum Hepta-(p-benzamid), deren Kristallstruktur und thermisches Verhalten eingehend untersucht werden. Ihre besondere Steifigkeit wird im Folgenden genutzt, um Stab-Knäuel-Copolymere mit wohldefiniertem OPBA-Stab-Block herzustellen. Das Aggregationsverhalten dieser Copolymere wird näher beschrieben und die Aggregate mittels Rasterkraftmikroskopie (RKM) visualisiert und charakterisiert. Ein Schwerpunkt der durchgeführten Forschung befasst sich mit dem Einflu"s chemischer Variationen von Knäuel- und Stabblock auf die Aggregation. Ausgehend von PEG-OPBA-Copolymeren wird gezeigt, wie sich über kontrolliert radikalische Polymerisation responsive Triblöcke herstellen lassen. Das Verhalten dieser Triblöcke in wässriger Lösung wird eingehender untersucht und anhand von Lichstreu- und RKM-Untersuchungen ein Modell entwickelt, welches dieses Verhalten beschreibt. Neben den OPBA beschäftigt sich die Arbeit mit der Synthese wohldefinierter Oligo-p-phenylen-terephthalamide (OPTA). Der Aufbau PEG-basierter Stab-Knäuel-Copolymere mit monodispersem OPTA-Block wird beschrieben und ihre Aggregate mittels RKM dargestellt. Die Copolymere werden verwendet, um verbesserte Haftungseigenschaften an Twaron-Fasern gegenüber reinem PEG zu demonstrieren.