Design, synthesis and validation of an inhibitor of CGRP degradation

Introduction: In addition to their afferent role in detection and signalling noxious stimuli, neuropeptide-containing sensory nerves may initiate and maintain chronic inflammation in diseases such as periodontitis by an efferent process known as neurogenic inflammation. Neuropeptides are susceptible to cleavage by peptidases, and therefore, the exact location and level of expression of peptidases are major determinants of neuropeptide action. Previous studies in our laboratory showed that enzyme components of gingival crevicular fluid (GCF) from periodontitis sites selectively inactivated the neuropeptide calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP), known to have a role in inhibiting osteoclastic bone resorption. Objectives: The aim of this study was to design and synthesise a specific inhibitor to prevent the degradation of CGRP by components of GCF. Methods: A hydroxamate-based inhibitor with a biotinylated tag was designed to ensure selectivity for CGRP and ease of use for future purification strategies. The biotinylated peptide hydroxamate contained the P1-P4 amino acid sequence of the potential CGRP cleavage site and was synthesised by solid-phase methods using standard Fmoc chemistry. Inhibition of CGRP metabolism by GCF was determined by MALDI-mass spectrometry (MALDI-MS) using pooled GCF samples from periodontitis patients as a crude source of the CGRP-degrading enzyme. Results: MALDI-MS analysis of CGRP degradation showed almost complete inhibition in the presence of the biotinylated inhibitor. Our results showed that the rate-limiting step in the cleavage of CGRP is endopeptidase cleavage, followed by carboxypeptidase attack. Conclusion: This study demonstrates that the enzyme component of GCF responsible for the degradation of CGRP can be inhibited by a biotinylated hydroxamate modelled on a potential endopeptidase cleavage site. The biotin tag on the inhibitor will facilitate our future purification of the CGRP-cleavage enzyme using a streptavidin-agarose column.

LL-37 Degradation by GCF: A Role for Porphyromonas gingivalis Proteinases?

Background: LL-37, composed of 37 amino acid residues, is an innate host defence peptide of the cathelicidin family. It is expressed by neutrophils, monocytes and epithelial cells and exhibits both anti-bacterial and immunomodulatory properties. LL-37 is however prone to proteolytic degradation by proteinases, thus potentially limiting its inherent host defence properties in the inflammatory milieu. Objectives: The present study was designed to determine whether LL-37 was degraded by components of gingival crevicular fluid (GCF) from healthy subjects or those with periodontitis. In addition, we aimed to deduce whether degradation of the peptide was accelerated in GCF samples which were determined to be positive for the periodontopathic bacterium Porphyromonas gingivalis. Methods: GCF and bacterial plaque samples, pre- and post non-surgical periodontal treatment, were collected from 4 individual sites in patients presenting with advanced periodontitis. In healthy subjects, GCF samples only were collected. Plaque samples were analysed by QPCR for the presence or absence of P. gingivalis. Pooled GCF samples from healthy sites; periodontitis sites which were P. gingivalis negative (Pg-); or periodontitis sites which were P. gingivalis positive (Pg+), were incubated with synthetic LL-37 for 0 – 180 min. The degradation products were then analysed by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionisation time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS). Results: LL-37 was not degraded when incubated with GCF from healthy subjects. In contrast, LL-37 was degraded after 30 min when incubated with Pg- GCF. However degradation of LL-37 was apparent after only 2 min incubation with Pg+ GCF and the parent molecule was almost completely degraded after 30 min. Conclusions: The rapid degradation of LL-37, particularly in Pg+ sites, highlights the limited role which this host defence peptide may play in the presence of biologically active proteinases. It also underscores a potent virulence mechanism of P. gingivalis used to circumvent innate host responses.

Using the fluorescent properties of STO-609 as a tool to assist structure-function analyses of recombinant CaMKK2

Calcium/calmodulin-dependent kinase kinase 2 (CaMKK2) has been implicated in the regulation of metabolic activity in cancer and immune cells, and affects whole-body metabolism by regulating ghrelin-signalling in the hypothalamus. This has led to efforts to develop specific CaMKK2 inhibitors, and STO-609 is the standardly used CaMKK2 inhibitor to date. We have developed a novel fluorescence-based assay by exploiting the intrinsic fluorescence properties of STO-609. Here, we report an in vitro binding constant of KD ∼17 nM between STO-609 and purified CaMKK2 or CaMKK2:Calmodulin complex. Whereas high concentrations of ATP were able to displace STO-609 from the kinase, GTP was unable to achieve this confirming the specificity of this association. Recent structural studies on the kinase domain of CaMKK2 had implicated a number of amino acids involved in the binding of STO-609. Our fluorescent assay enabled us to confirm that Phe(267) is critically important for this association since mutation of this residue to a glycine abolished the binding of STO-609. An ATP replacement assay, as well as the mutation of the 'gatekeeper' amino acid Phe(267)Gly, confirmed the specificity of the assay and once more confirmed the strong binding of STO-609 to the kinase. In further characterising the purified kinase and kinase-calmodulin complex we identified a number of phosphorylation sites some of which corroborated previously reported CaMKK2 phosphorylation and some of which, particularly in the activation segment, were novel phosphorylation events. In conclusion, the intrinsic fluorescent properties of STO-609 provide a great opportunity to utilise this drug to label the ATP-binding pocket and probe the impact of mutations and other regulatory modifications and interactions on the pocket. It is however clear that the number of phosphorylation sites on CaMKK2 will pose a challenge in studying the impact of phosphorylation on the pocket unless the field can develop approaches to control the spectrum of modifications that occur during recombinant protein expression in E. coli.

Study of oxidation and non-enzymatic glycosylation posttranslational modifications using a proteomic approach

A glicosilação não-enzimática e o stress oxidativo representam dois processos importantes visto desempenharem um papel importante no que respeita às complicações de vários processos patofisiológicos. No presente, a associação entre a glicosilação não-enzimática e a oxidação de proteínas é reconhecida como sendo um dos principais responsáveis pela acumulação de proteínas não-funcionais que, por sua vez, promove uma contínua sensibilização para um aumento do stress oxidativo ao nível celular. Embora esteja disponível bastante informação no que respeita aos dois processos e suas consequências ao nível estrutural e funcional, permanecem questões por esclarecer acerca do que se desenvolve ao nível molecular. Com o objectivo de contribuir para uma melhor compreensão da relação entre a glicosilação não-enzimática e a oxidação, proteínas modelo (albumina, insulina e histonas H2B e H1) foram submetidas a sistemas in vitro de glicosilação não-enzimática e oxidação em condições controladas e durante um período de tempo específico. A identificação dos locais de glicosilação e oxidação foi realizada através de uma abordagem proteómica, na qual após digestão enzimática se procedeu à análise por cromatografia líquida acoplada a espectrometria de massa tandem (MALDI-TOF/TOF). Esta abordagem permitiu a obtenção de elevadas taxas de cobertura das sequências proteicas, permitindo a identificação dos locais preferenciais de glicosilação e oxidação nas diferentes proteínas estudadas. Como esperado, os resíduos de lisina foram os preferencialmente glicosilados. No que respeita à oxidação, além das modificações envolvendo hidroxilações e adições de oxigénio, foram identificadas deamidações, carbamilações e conversões oxidativas específicas de vários aminoácidos. No geral, os resíduos mais afectados pela oxidação foram os resíduos de cisteína, metionina, triptofano, tirosina, prolina, lisina e fenilalanina. Ao longo do período de tempo estudado, os resultados indicaram que a oxidação teve início em zonas expostas da proteína e/ou localizadas na vizinhança de resíduos de cisteína e metionina, ao invés de exibir um comportamente aleatório, ocorrendo de uma forma nãolinear por sua vez dependente da estabilidade conformacional da proteína. O estudo ao longo do tempo mostrou igualmente que, no caso das proteínas préglicosiladas, a oxidação das mesmas ocorreu de forma mais rápida e acentuada, sugerindo que as alterações estruturais induzidas pela glicosilação promovem um estado pro-oxidativo. No caso das proteínas pré-glicosiladas e oxidadas, foi identificado um maior número de modificações oxidativas assim como de resíduos modificados na vizinhança de resíduos glicosilados. Com esta abordagem é realizada uma importante contribuição na investigação das consequências do dano ‘glico-oxidativo’ em proteínas ao nível molecular através da combinação da espectrometria de massa e da bioinformática.

Matéria húmica de sapal: variações estruturais e complexação com o cobre

No presente trabalho foram estudadas as variações na composição, estrutura e comportamento das substâncias húmicas sedimentares (SHS), promovidas pela presença de duas espécies de plantas da família Chenopodiacea, presentes nos sapais da Ria de Aveiro: a Halimione portulacoides e a Arthrocnemum fruticosum. Para além das variações espaciais horizontais, foram investigadas as variações ao longo de um perfil de profundidades. Desta forma, para além da camada superficial (0-10 cm) de sedimentos com diferentes espécies de plantas e sem plantas, também foram investigadas camadas de sedimentos intermédia (20-25 cm) e profunda (45-50 cm). Para a extracção das SHS recorreu-se a uma pequena modificação do método proposto pela International Humic Substances Society (IHSS) para extracção e purificação de substâncias húmicas de solos. As SH extraídas foram caracterizadas através dos métodos espectroscópicos de absorção no ultravioleta visível, de fluorescência molecular síncrona, de absorção no infravermelho com transformadas de Fourier (FTIR) e de RMN 13C em estado sólido. Estas técnicas de caracterização foram complementadas pela análise elementar e termogravimetria. Em algumas amostras, foram ainda determinados o conteúdo em alguns metais por ICP-AES e o conteúdo funcional ácido por titulações potenciométricas. Após exaustiva caracterização das amostras de AH, procedeu-se ao estudo da sua capacidade de complexação com o cobre, recorrendo a titulações monitorizadas por fluorescência molecular síncrona. Os resultados revelaram que a colonização de sedimentos por plantas vasculares superiores conduz a uma alteração profunda no ambiente sedimentar e que esta é reflectida na diagénese das substâncias húmicas sedimentares, tendo-se observado variações a uma pequena escala espacial. O estudo deste tipo de variações nunca tinha sido efectuado em trabalhos anteriores. Nos ácidos fúlvicos detectaram-se diferenças na composição e estrutura das amostras correspondentes às camadas superiores de sedimentos, reflectindo a presença de diferentes colonizações vegetais. Relativamente aos ácidos húmicos, foi possível classificá-los em dois tipos distintos. Os AH do tipo I correspondem aos sedimentos superficiais e intermédios dos locais com plantas. Neste tipo de AH verificou-se uma incorporação de polissacarídeos e estruturas peptídicas, em estados de humificação pouco desenvolvidos. Os AH do tipo II correspondem aos sedimentos mais profundos de todos os locais e aos intermédios do local sem plantas e caracterizam-se por um maior grau de humificação e polimerização, um maior conteúdo aromático e de estruturas conjugadas e um maior conteúdo de grupos carboxílicos. Essas diferenças estruturais conduzem a diferentes comportamentos ácido/base e de complexação com o cobre. Assim, os AH do tipo I, que apresentam sinais espectroscópicos mais baixos associados a grupos carboxílicos e fenólicos, têm menor conteúdo de grupos funcionais ácidos e menor capacidade de complexação com o cobre quando se consideram ligandos característicos de unidades aromáticas conjugadas. Relativamente aos valores de log K dos complexos de AHS com o cobre, as amostras representativas da camada superficial dos sedimentos com plantas apresentaram valores superiores aos das restantes amostras de AH estudadas, cujos valores de log K são similares entre si. Atendendo aos resultados de análise elementar e espectroscópica, este facto pode estar associado à presença de compostos de azoto não peptídicos. Quanto a outros ligandos para o cobre, nomeadamente os representativos de estruturas peptídicas contendo o aminoácido triptofano e estruturas aromáticas simples, não foi possível obter resultados conclusivos. Dado que os ácidos húmicos do tipo I demonstraram um maior conteúdo peptídico e menor conteúdo aromático, o estudo destes ligandos torna-se importante para compreender melhor o efeito da presença de plantas nos sedimentos de sapal sobre o comportamento dos ácidos húmicos sedimentares como ligandos para o cobre. Refere-se ainda que foram detectadas certas especificidades na variação das características do sedimento e das substâncias húmicas com a profundidade nos diferentes locais estudados que não podem ser explicadas meramente com a presença de material vegetal oriundo de diferentes espécies de plantas, requerendo um conhecimento mais aprofundado das comunidades bentónicas e do ambiente físico-químico do sedimento.

Síntese de azacalixarenos para o reconhecimento molecular de aniões

No âmbito desta dissertação são apresentados novos recetores sintéticos baseados na plataforma macrocíclica tetraazacalix[2]areno[2]triazina incorporando bases de purina ou unidades de aminoácidos naturais. Estes recetores foram preparados tendo como objectivo o reconhecimento seletivo de fármacos e aniões biologicamente relevantes. No primeiro capítulo é apresentada uma revisão bibliográfica sobre recetores derivados de tetraazacalix[2]areno[2]triazina demonstrando-se que a funcionalização desta plataforma, nos anéis de triazina ou nos anéis benzénicos, encontra-se ainda na infância bem como a investigação das suas afinidades para aniões. Subsequentemente, considerando os aniões principais estudados nesta tese, aniões carboxilatos alifáticos, aromáticos e aminoácidos é apresentada uma revisão bibliográfica sobre os estudos de reconhecimento molecular reportados na literatura, entre derivados de calix[4]areno e este tipo de aniões. No segundo capítulo descrevem-se as sínteses de recetores com uma ou duas unidades de aminoácido, L-alanina (AC1A, AC2A) e L-triptofano (AC2T), ancoradas nos anéis benzénicos da plataforma tetraazacalix[2]areno[2]triazina. Como demostrado no capítulo 3, os grupos N-H dos azotos em ponte são locais de reconhecimento de aniões. Neste contexto, estes macrociclos foram também metilados nos azotos em ponte (Me4AC2A e Me4AC2T) de modo a direcionar o reconhecimento cooperativo de aniões exclusivamente através dos grupos N-H das unidades de aminoácidos. A lipofilicidade destas moléculas foi alterada por substituição dos átomos de cloro das triazinas por dihexilamina. Os compostos sintetizados foram caracterizados através de técnicas espetroscópicas complementadas em alguns compostos por difração de raios X de cristal único. No capítulo 3 apresentam-se os estudos de reconhecimento molecular entre os recetores sintetizados e aniões derivados de ácidos carboxílicos (mono, di e tricarboxílicos) alifáticos, aromáticos, isoméricos e aniões inorgânicos. Estes estudos foram efetuados em DMSO-d6 ou em CDCl3 por titulações de RMN de 1H com determinação das respetivas constantes de associação. Para os recetores AC1A e AC2A o reconhecimento da maioria dos aniões estudados ocorre simultaneamente através dos grupos N-H dos azotos em ponte e do N-H da amida do braço da L-alanina. Contudo, no caso do isoftalato e tricarboxilato, com dois e três grupos carboxilato em posição meta, ocorre preferencialmente através dos dois braços de L-alanina como sugerido por estudos de dinâmica molecular em DMSO. Os estudos de associação realizados para os macrociclos que contêm unidades de L-triptofano, AC2T e Me4AC2T, mostraram que o reconhecimento de aniões é efetuado preferencialmente através de ligações de hidrogénio estabelecidas com os grupos amida e amina do grupo indole dos braços de aminoácido em detrimento das aminas em ponte como em AC1A e AC2A. Para a série dos carboxilatos alifáticos verifica-se que o recetor Me4AC2A tem maior afinidade com o anião glutarato (K= 389 M-1, DMSO-d6) enquanto o recetor Me4AC2T associa-se mais fortemente com o anião oxalato (K= 776 M-1, CDCl3). Todas as Job plots efetuadas confirmaram que as entidades estudadas obedeciam a uma estequiometria recetor/anião de 1:1.

Chemical communication in the Mozambique tilapia: a role for amino acids

The Mozambique tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus) is a maternal mouthbrooding cichlid from the southern Africa. The olfactory sensitivity of the species to 20 amino acids was assessed using the electro-olfactogram (EOG). We estimated whether the olfactory potency of the polar fraction of male urine can be explained by the presence of identified amino acids. In addition, filtrate and amino acid mixture of the urine of Nile tilapia were used to estimate their olfactory potency for O.mossambicus. Finally, concentrations of the main amino acids were measured in the urine of males of different social status and the correlations between amino acid concentration and hierarchical status were explored. L-cysteine, L-glutamine and L-threonine were the most potent stimuli at M while L-proline and L-aspartate were the least potent. Four groups of amino acids were identified according to their thresholds of detection and three groups – according to the similarity of their ɣ-factors. The estimated threshold of detection for O.mossambicus mixture was higher than that for the filtrate. On the contrary, the threshold of detection for the mixture of Nile tilapia was lower than that for the filtrate The concentration of L-arginine in the urine was positively correlated with fish dominance index. Both L-arginine and L-glutamic acid concentrations had much greater variability in dominant males (DI˃0.5) than in subordinate males (DI˂0.5). The urinary concentrations of L-phenylalanine had similar variability in dominant and subordinate groups. The Mozambique tilapia has olfactory sensitivity to all twenty amino acids tested. The fish showed more acute sensitivity to conspecific urine filtrate than to the heterospecific. Olfactory potency of O.mossambicus filtrate can be largely but not fully explained by the presence of L-arginine, L-glutamic acid and L-phenylalanine. Larginine and L-glutamic acid may indicate the dominance status of the fish and, possibly, individual identity.

Molecular structure and functional analysis of runx3 in zebrafish

Tese de doutoramento, Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade do Algarve, Departamento de Ciências Biomédicas e Medicina, 2014

Phenylketonuria: Protein content and amino acids profile of dishes for phenylketonuric patients. The relevance of phenylalanine

Phenylketonuria is an inborn error of metabolism, involving, in most cases, a deficient activity of phenylalanine hydroxylase. Neonatal diagnosis and a prompt special diet (low phenylalanine and natural-protein restricted diets) are essential to the treatment. The lack of data concerning phenylalanine contents of processed foodstuffs is an additional limitation for an already very restrictive diet. Our goals were to quantify protein (Kjeldahl method) and amino acid (18) content (HPLC/fluorescence) in 16 dishes specifically conceived for phenylketonuric patients, and compare the most relevant results with those of several international food composition databases. As might be expected, all the meals contained low protein levels (0.67–3.15 g/100 g) with the highest ones occurring in boiled rice and potatoes. These foods also contained the highest amounts of phenylalanine (158.51 and 62.65 mg/100 g, respectively). In contrast to the other amino acids, it was possible to predict phenylalanine content based on protein alone. Slight deviations were observed when comparing results with the different food composition databases.

Urinary Tract Effects of HPSE2 Mutations

Urofacial syndrome (UFS) is an autosomal recessive congenital disease featuring grimacing and incomplete bladder emptying. Mutations of HPSE2, encoding heparanase 2, a heparanase 1 inhibitor, occur in UFS, but knowledge about the HPSE2 mutation spectrum is limited. Here, seven UFS kindreds with HPSE2 mutations are presented, including one with deleted asparagine 254, suggesting a role for this amino acid, which is conserved in vertebrate orthologs. HPSE2 mutations were absent in 23 non-neurogenic neurogenic bladder probands and, of 439 families with nonsyndromic vesicoureteric reflux, only one carried a putative pathogenic HPSE2 variant. Homozygous Hpse2 mutant mouse bladders contained urine more often than did wild-type organs, phenocopying human UFS. Pelvic ganglia neural cell bodies contained heparanase 1, heparanase 2, and leucine-rich repeats and immunoglobulin-like domains-2 (LRIG2), which is mutated in certain UFS families. In conclusion, heparanase 2 is an autonomic neural protein implicated in bladder emptying, but HPSE2 variants are uncommon in urinary diseases resembling UFS.

Effects of infused amino acids on glucose production and utilization in healthy human subjects.

Amino acids have been reported to increase endogenous glucose production in normal human subjects during hyperinsulinemia: however, controversy exists as to whether insulin-mediated glucose disposal is inhibited under these conditions. The effect of an amino acid infusion on glucose oxidation rate has so far not been determined. Substrate oxidation rates, endogenous glucose production, and [13C]glucose synthesis from [13C]bicarbonate were measured in six normal human subjects during sequential infusions of exogenous glucose and exogenous glucose with (n = 5) or without (n = 5) exogenous amino acids. Amino acids increased endogenous glucose production by 84% and [13C]glucose synthesis by 235%. Glucose oxidation estimated from indirect calorimetry decreased slightly after amino acids, but glucose oxidation estimated from [13C]glucose-13CO2 data was increased by 14%. It is concluded that gluconeogenesis is the major pathway of amino acid degradation. During amino acid administration, indirect calorimetry underestimates the true rate of glucose oxidation, whereas glucose oxidation calculated from the 13C enrichment of expired CO2 during [U-13C]glucose infusion does not. A slight stimulation of glucose oxidation during amino acid infusion, concomitant with an increased plasma insulin concentration, indicates that amino acids do not inhibit glucose oxidation.

Differential peptide binding to CD40 evokes counteractive responses.

The antigen-presenting cell-expressed CD40 is implied in the regulation of counteractive immune responses such as induction of pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines interleukin (IL)-12 and IL-10, respectively. The mechanism of this duality in CD40 function remains unknown. Here, we investigated whether such duality depends on ligand binding. Based on CD40 binding, we identifed two dodecameric peptides, peptide-7 and peptide-19, from the phage peptide library. Peptide-7 induces IL-10 and increases Leishmania donovani infection in macrophages, whereas peptide-19 induces IL-12 and reduces L. donovani infection. CD40-peptide interaction analyses by surface plasmon resonance and atomic force microscopy suggest that the functional differences are not associated with the studied interaction parameters. The molecular dynamic simulation of the CD40-peptides interaction suggests that these two peptides bind to two different places on CD40. Thus, we suggest for the first time that differential binding of the ligands imparts functional duality to CD40.

Cloning, sequencing and characterization of a chitin synthase gene fragment from the fungus Phascolomyces articulosus /

Phascolomyces articulosus genomic DNA was isolated from 48 h old hyphae and was used for amplification of a chitin synthase fragment by the polymerase chain reaction method. The primers used in the amplification corresponded to two widely conserved amino acid regions found in chitin synthases of many fimgi. Amphfication resulted in four bands (820, 900, 1000 and 1500 bp, approximately) as visualized in a 1.2% agarose gel. The lowest band (820 bp) was selected as a candidate for chitin synthase because most amplified regions from other fimgi so far exhibited similar sizes (600-750 bp). The selected fragment was extracted from the gel and cloned in the Hinc n site of pUC19. The derived plasmid and insert were designated ^\5C\9'PaCHS and PaCHS respectively. The plasmid pUC19-PaC/fS was digested by several restriction enzymes and was found to contain BamHl and HincU sites. Sequencing of PaCHS revealed two intron sequences and a total open reading frame of 200 amino acids. The derived polypeptide was compared with other related sequences from the EMBL database (Heidelberg, Germany) and was matched to 36 other fiilly or partially sequenced fimgal chitin synthase genes. The closest resemblance was with two genes (74.5% and 73.1% identity) from Rhizopus oligosporus. Southern hybridization with the cloned fragment as a probe to the PCR reaction showed a strong signal at the fragment selected for cloning and weaker signals at the other two fragments. Southern hybridization with partially digested Phascolomyces articulosus genomic DNA showed a single band. The amino acid sequence was compared with sequences from other chitin synthase gene classes using the CLUSTALW program. The chitin synthase fragment from Phascolomyces articulosus was initially grouped in class n along with chitin synthase fragments from Rhizopus oligosporus and Phycomyces blakesleeanus which also belong to the same class, Zygomycetes. Bootstrap analysis using the neighbor-joining method available by CLUSTALW verified such classification. Comparison of PaCHS revealed conservation of intron positions that are characteristic of chitin synthase gene fragments of zygomycetous fungi.

Does Gamma-aminobutyric acid function as a plant resistance mechanism against phytophagous insect activity? /

Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GAB A) is a ubiquitous non-protein amino acid synthesized via the decarboxylation of L-glutamate in a reaction catalyzed by the cytosolic enzyme L-glutamate decarboxylase (GAD). In animals it functions as an inhibitory neurotransmitter. In plants it accumulates rapidly in response to various stresses, but its function remains unclear. The hypothesis that GABA accumulation in leaf tissue may function as a plant resistance mechanism against phytophagous insect activity was investigated. GABA accumulation in response to mechanical stimulation, mechanical damage and insect activity was demonstrated. In wt tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum cv Samsun), mechanical stimulation or damage caused GABA to accumulate within 2 min from mean levels of 14 to 37 and 1~9 nmol g-l fresh weight (FW), respectively. In the transgenic tobacco strain CaMVGAD27c overexpressing Petunia GAD, the same treatments caused GABA to accumulate from 12 to 59 and 279 nmol g-l FW, respectively. In the transgenic tobacco strain CaMVGADilC 11 overexpressing Petunia GAD lacking an autoinhibitory domain, mechanical stimulation or damage caused GABA to accumulate from 180 to 309 and 630 nmol g-l FW, respectively. Ambulatory activity by tobacco budworm (TBW) larvae (Heliothis virescens) on leaves of CaMVGAD27c tobacco caused GABA to accumulate from 28 to 80 nmol g-l FW within 5 min. Ambulatory and leaf-rolling activity by oblique banded leaf roller (OBLR) larvae (Choristoneura rosaceana cv Harris) on wt soybean leaves (Glycine max cv Harovinton) caused GABA to accumulate from 60 to 1123 nmol g-l FW within 20 min. Increased GABA levels in leaf tissue were shown to affect phytophagous preference in TBW larvae presented with wt and transgenic tobacco leaves. When presented with leaves of Samsun wt and CaMVGAD27c plants, TBW larvae consumed more wt leaf tissue (640 ± 501 S.D. mm2 ) than transgenic leaf tissue (278 ± 338 S.D. mm2 ) nine times out of ten. When presented with leaves of Samsun wt and CaMVGAD~C11 plants, TBW larvae consumed more transgenic leaf tissue (1219 ± 1009 S.D. mm2 ) than wt leaf tissue (28 ± 31 S.D. mm2 ) ten times out of ten. These results indicate that: (1) ambulatory activity of insect larvae on leaves results in increased GABA levels, (2) transgenic tobacco leaves with increased capacity for GABA synthesis deter feeding, and (3) transgenic tobacco leaves with constitutively higher GABA levels stimulate feeding.

L-Glutamate uptake, decarboxylation to -aminobutyric acid and GABA efflux in isolated Asparagus sprengeri mesophyll cells

Addition of L-glutamate caused alkalinization of the medium surrounding Asparagus spreng.ri mesophyll cells. This suggests a H+/L-glutmate symport uptake system for L-glutamate. However stoichiometries of H+/L-glutamate symport into Asparagus cells were much higher than those in other plant systems. Medium alkalinization may also result from a metabolic decarboxylation process. Since L-glutmate is decarboxylated to r-amino butyric acid (SABA) in this system, the origin of medium alkalinization was reconsidered. Suspensions of mechanically isolated and photosyntheically competent Asparagus sprengeri mesophyll cells were used to investigate the H+/L-glutamate symport system, SABA production, GABA transport, and the origin of L-glutamate dependent medium alkalinization. The major results obtained are summarized as follows: 1. L-Glutamate and GABA were the second or third most abundant amino acids in these cells. Cellular concentrations of L-glutamate were 1.09 mM and 1.31 mM in the light and dark, respectively. Those of SABA were 1.23 mM and 1.17 mM in the light and dark, respectively. 2. Asparagine was the most abundant amino acid in xylem sap and comprised 54 to 68 1. of the amino acid pool on a molar basis. GABA was the second most abundant amino acid and represented 10 to 11 1. of the amino acid pool. L-Slutamate was a minor component. 3. A 10 minute incubation with 1 mM L-glutamate increased the production of GABA in the medium by 2,743 7. and 2,241 7. in the light and dark, respectively. 4. L-Glutamate entered the cells prior to decarboxylation. 5. There was no evidence for a H+/GABA symport process • 6. GABA was produced by loss of carbon-1 of L-glutamate. 7. The specific activity of newly synthesized labeled GABA suggests that it is not equilibrated with a storage pool of GABA. 8. The mechanism of GABA efflux appears to be a passive process. 9. The evidence indicates that the origin of L-glutamate dependent medium alkalinization is a H+/L-glutamate symport not an extracellular decarboxylation. The possible role of GABA production in regulating cytoplasmic pH and L-glutamate levels during rapid electrogenic H+/L-glutamate symport is discussed.