Online and Offline Participation at the Local Level : A Quantitative Analysis of the Catalan Municipalities

This paper presents a first analysis on local electronic participatory experiences in Catalonia. The analysis is based on a database constructed and collected by the authors. The paper carries out an explanatory analysis of local initiatives in eparticipationand off line participation taking into account political variables (usually not considered in this kind of analysis) but also classical socio-economic variables that characterise municipalities. Hence, we add a quantitative analysis to the numerous case studies on local e-participation experiences. We have chosen Catalonia because is one of the European regions with more initiatives and one that has enjoyed considerable local governmental support to citizen participation initiatives since the 80s. The paper offers a characterisation of these experiences and a first explanatory analysis, considering: i) the institutional context in which these experiences are embedded, ii) the characteristics of the citizen participation processes and mechanisms on-line, and iii) a set of explanatory variables composed by the population size, thepolitical adscription of the mayor, the electoral abstention rate, age, income and level ofeducation in the municipality. The model that we present is explanatory for the municipalities with more than 20,000 inhabitants but it is not for the fewer than 20,000inhabitants. Actually, the number of participatory activities developed by these last municipalities is very low. Among all the variables, population size becomes the mostinfluential variable. Political variables such as political party of the mayor and the localabstention rate have a certain influence but that have to be controlled by population size.

Online and Offline Participation at the Local level: A Quantitative Analysis of the Catalan Municipalities

This article presents an analysis on local participatory experiences in Catalonia,both online and in-person. The analysis is based on a database set up by theauthors. The article carries out an explanatory analysis of local participatoryinitiatives (on- and offline) taking into account political variables (not usually con-sidered in this kind of analysis) and also classical socio-economic variables thatcharacterize municipalities. Hence, we add a quantitative analysis to the numerouscase studies on local e-participation experiences. We have chosen Catalonia becauseit is one of the European regions with more initiatives and a considerable localgovernment support for citizen participation initiatives since the 1980s. Thearticle offers a characterization of these experiences and an explanatory analysis,considering: (i) the institutional context in which these experiences are embedded,(ii) the citizen participation processes and mechanisms online and (iii) a set ofexplanatory variables composed of the population size and the province to whichthe municipality belongs, the political tendency of the mayor, the electoral absten-tion rate, age, income, level of education, broadband connection and users of theInternet in the municipality. The model that we present is explanatory for munici-palities with more than 20,000 inhabitants but it is not for fewer than 20,000inhabitants. Actually, the majority of these latter municipalities have not developedany participatory activities. Among all the variables, population size is the mostinfluential variable and affects the influence of other variables, such as the politicalparty of the mayor, the local abstention rate and the province.

O impacto do PADCT na qu��mica e engenharia qu��mica

Among all activities related to the management of science and technology in Brazil, program monitoring and evaluation is certainly one of the less developed and most needed. There are no universal methodologies that can be applied. In essence programs can be evaluated by relating their achievements to pre-established goals. A second strategy is to compare programs similar in nature, utilizing as reference common indicators. Finally programs can be evaluated by their socio-economic impact comparing investments to outcomes. All strategies mentioned require appropriate program design monitoring and expert independent evaluation. In Brazil as in many other countries including developed ones this activity is complicated by the fact that programs vary widely in their scope and goals. In Brazil program designs often do not specify clearly their purposes and output indicators, many are not monitored properly which makes evaluation difficult. Consequently science and technology programs are difficult to be compared to each other, and even evaluated on the basis of pre-established goals. In PADCT monitoring and evaluation proved to be the most challenging activities. Two lessons however were learnt. One is that the process of monitoring and evaluation has to be continuously exposed to criticism to be perfected; and the second is that the evaluation process must not be exhausted shortly after investments since translation of scientific knowledge into industrial applications may prove to be a lengthy process. In this exercise we certainly do not pretend to evaluate the QEQ subprogram but to organize some of the information produced by different sources related to this subject, including the PADCT administration. We use somewhat each strategy described: compare the outputs of the QEQ to predetermined proposed goals (particularly in PADCT II), compare the QEQ to other PADCT subprograms, and specify some outputs in terms of technological and industrial applications. Finally, we utilize this opportunity to discuss science and technology M&E in general and the complexity of developing this area in Brazil.

La gesti�� del regadiu a Catalunya: plans, actors i reptes de futur

Irrigation has traditionally constituted one of the most characteristic and emblematic agricultural mosaics of the Mediterranean as a key factor of socio-economic dynamism of the territorial matrix. In recent years there has been an important scientific, intellectual and social environment mobilization around water uses and, in particular, around the main socio-economic use of resource: irrigation, which is undergoing an intense and accelerated transformation process. Thus, in parallel with the decline of traditional irrigation systems, located in areas with natural availability of water, fertile soil and appropriate topographic conditions, the socio-economic changes in the last decade have stimulated the appearance of new irrigated areas with environmental, social and economic disparate characteristics. As a result, the irrigation management model has been conditioned to respond to the new parameters of water scarcity and resource efficiency. In addition, policies and actors have evolved over time as a consequence of disparate priorities ���and often conflicting��� in terms of irrigation, making necessary the gear of different discourses. In this context, the Model of social commitment of irrigation proposed by the Institutional and Social Innovations in Irrigation Mediterranean Management (ISIIMM) can become a starting example

Uusperheen voimavarat ja lasten hyvinvointi

<b>The resources of the step family and the children���s well-being</b> The present study investigates children's well-being in stepfamilies and fac��tors, both external and internal, that are related to the children's well-being. Of the external factors, the study focuses on factors related to the structure of the stepfamily, parents' education, socio-economic status and factors related to work, livelihood and living conditions. The internal resources include the general functioning of the family, parenthood and parenting, family support networks and issues that the stepfamilies themselves consider important. Another important resource in a stepfamily is a functioning network of human relationships, which in the present study is approached from the maternal viewpoint. Changing family relations are considered a potential threat to the children's well-being. Therefore, in addition to looking into the stepfamily's resources, the other important goal of the study is to explore other factors potentially related to the well-being of children living in stepfamilies. In view of the stepfamily's resources, it is important to explore how the functioning of the relationships network is linked with the child's well-being. The study employs survey and interview data. The survey data (n=2236) are part of national survey data on the well-being of families and children and factors impacting them which were gathered as part of ���Origins of Exclusion in Early Childhood���, a research project carried out in 2002. The data consists of 667 stepfamilies. The interview data consists of interviews with 24 parents in stepfamilies. In the study, the analyses of survey and interview data are combined. Both descriptive statistical analyses and multivariate methods are employed. Content analysis is employed in the analysis of the interview data. The results indicate that the stepfamilies��� resources in general but their external resources in particular differed from those of the nuclear and single-parent families. The level of education and the socio-economic status of the stepfamily parents were somewhat lower than those of the nuclear family parents. The differences in relation to single-parent families were primarily related to the better economic status of the stepfamilies. The analysis of internal resources showed relatively minor differences: the stepfamilies assessed themselves a somewhat better general functioning of the family than did the nuclear families. Parenting issues caused more disagreement in stepfamilies than in nuclear families. The analysis of the functioning of the human relations in stepfamilies showed that the stepfamily mothers experienced the external relationships of the family (e.g., between the child and the absent father) as significantly more problematic than the relationships within the stepfamily. Living in a stepfamily thus challenges the functioning of the relationship between the child and the absent father. As a result of the analysis of the relationships networks in the stepfamilies, three groups were formed. One group had the nuclear family as an ideal goal, another valued an extended family composed of a variety of relationships, and the third one appreciated a strong intimate relationship between the parents. In the present study, the most common group was the multi-relationship, extended type of stepfamily. In conclusion, living in a stepfamily does not seem to pose a risk to the child���s well-being, but it may influence the family���s resources and thus have an indirect effect on the child���s well-being. In view of the resources of the stepfamily, the child���s well-being was best supported by a functioning network of human relationships in the stepfamily: there was a distinct connection with the children���s problems and the non-functioning of the relationships network. According to the mothers, the internal relationships in the stepfamily seemed to be more important than the external relationships of the family. A child���s functioning relationship with the absent father can be viewed as a positive resource, supporting the child���s well-being in the stepfamily.

Training system for conceptual design and evaluation for wastewater treatment

Rising population, rapid urbanisation and growing industrialisation have severely stressed water quality and its availability in Malawi. In addition, financial and institutional problems and the expanding agro industry have aggravated this problem. The situation is worsened by depleting water resources and pollution from untreated sewage and industrial effluent. The increasing scarcity of clean water calls for the need for appropriate management of available water resources. There is also demand for a training system for conceptual design and evaluation for wastewater treatment in order to build the capacity for technical service providers and environmental practitioners in the country. It is predicted that Malawi will face a water stress situation by 2025. In the city of Blantyre, this situation is aggravated by the serious pollution threat from the grossly inadequate sewage treatment capacity. This capacity is only 23.5% of the wastewater being generated presently. In addition, limited or non-existent industrial effluent treatment has contributed to the severe water quality degradation. This situation poses a threat to the ecologically fragile and sensitive receiving water courses within the city. This water is used for domestic purposes further downstream. This manuscript outlines the legal and policy framework for wastewater treatment in Malawi. The manuscript also evaluates the existing wastewater treatment systems in Blantyre. This evaluation aims at determining if the effluent levels at the municipal plants conform to existing standards and guidelines and other associated policy and regulatory frameworks. The raw material at all the three municipal plants is sewage. The typical wastewater parameters are Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD5), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), and Total Suspended Solids (TSS). The treatment target is BOD5, COD, and TSS reduction. Typical wastewater parameters at the wastewater treatment plant at MDW&S textile and garments factory are BOD5 and COD. The treatment target is to reduce BOD5 and COD. The manuscript further evaluates a design approach of the three municipal wastewater treatment plants in the city and the wastewater treatment plant at Mapeto David Whitehead & Sons (MDW&S) textile and garments factory. This evaluation utilises case-based design and case-based reasoning principles in the ED-WAVE tool to determine if there is potential for the tool in Blantyre. The manuscript finally evaluates the technology selection process for appropriate wastewater treatment systems for the city of Blantyre. The criteria for selection of appropriate wastewater treatment systems are discussed. Decision support tools and the decision tree making process for technology selection are also discussed. Based on the treatment targets and design criteria at the eight cases evaluated in this manuscript in reference to similar cases in the ED-WAVE tool, this work confirms the practical use of case-based design and case-based reasoning principles in the ED-WAVE tool in the design and evaluation of wastewater treatment 6 systems in sub-Sahara Africa, using Blantyre, Malawi, as the case study area. After encountering a new situation, already collected decision scenarios (cases) are invoked and modified in order to arrive at a particular design alternative. What is necessary, however, is to appropriately modify the case arrived at through the Case Study Manager in order to come up with a design appropriate to the local situation taking into account technical, socio-economic and environmental aspects. This work provides a training system for conceptual design and evaluation for wastewater treatment.

Understanding the Racial Nature of Police and Immigrant Relations In Finland. The Case of Africans in Turku

The focus of this study is to examine the role of police and immigrants��� relations, as less is known about this process in the country. The studies were approached in two different ways. Firstly, an attempt was made to examine how immigrants view their encounters with the police. Secondly, the studies explored how aware the police are of immigrants��� experiences in their various encounters and interactions on the street level. An ancillary aim of the studies is to clarify, analyse and discuss how prejudice and stereotypes can be tackled, thereby contributing to the general debate about racism and discrimination for better ethnic relations in the country. The data in which this analysis was based is on a group of adults (n=88) from the total of 120 Africans questioned for the entire study (n=45) police cadets and (n=6) serving police officers from Turku. The present thesis is a compilation of five articles. A summary of each article findings follows, as the same data was used in all five studies. In the first study, a theoretical model was developed to examine the perceived knowledge of bias by immigrants resulting from race, culture and belief. This was also an attempt to explore whether this knowledge was predetermined in my attempt to classify and discuss as well as analyse the factors that may be influencing immigrants��� allegations of unfair treatment by the police in Turku. The main finding shows that in the first paper there was ignorance and naivety on the part of the police in their attitudes towards the African immigrant���s prior experiences with the police, and this may probably have resulted from stereotypes or their lack of experience as well as prior training with immigrants where these kinds of experience are rampant in the country (Egharevba, 2003 and 2004a). In exploring what leads to stereotypes, a working definition is the assumption that is prevalent among some segments of the population, including the police, that Finland is a homogenous country by employing certain conducts and behaviour towards ethnic and immigrant groups in the country. This to my understanding is stereotype. Historically this was true, but today the social topography of the country is changing and becoming even more complex. It is true that, on linguistic grounds, the country is multilingual, as there are a few recognised national minority languages (Swedish, Sami and Russian) as well as a number of immigrant languages including English. Apparently it is vital for the police to have a line of communication open when addressing the problem associated with immigrants in the country. The second paper moved a step further by examining African immigrants��� understanding of human rights as well as what human rights violation means or entails in their views as a result of their experiences with the police, both in Finland and in their country of origin. This approach became essential during the course of the study, especially when the participants were completing the questionnaire (N=88), where volunteers were solicited for a later date for an in-depth interview with the author. Many of the respondents came from countries where human rights are not well protected and seldom discussed publicly, therefore understanding their views on the subject can help to explain why some of the immigrants are sceptical about coming forward to report cases of batteries and assaults to the police, or even their experiences of being monitored in shopping malls in their new home and the reason behind their low level of trust in public authorities in Finland. The study showed that knowledge of human rights is notably low among some of the participants. The study also found that female respondents were less aware of human rights when compared with their male counterparts. This has resulted in some of the male participants focussing more on their traditional ways of thinking by not realising that they are in a new country where there is equality in sexes and lack of respect on gender terms is not condoned. The third paper focussed on the respondents��� experiences with the police in Turku and tried to explore police attitudes towards African immigrant clients, in addition to the role stereotype plays in police views of different cultures and how these views have impacted on immigrants��� views of discriminatory policing in Turku. The data is the same throughout the entire studies (n=88), except that some few participants were interviewed for the third paper thirty-five persons. The results showed that there is some bias in mass-media reports on the immigrants��� issues, due to selective portrayal of biases without much investigation being carried out before jumping to conclusions, especially when the issues at stake involve an immigrant (Egharevba, 2005a; Egharevba, 2004a and 2004b). In this vein, there was an allegation that the police are even biased while investigating cases of theft, especially if the stolen property is owned by an immigrant (Egharevba, 2006a, Egharevba, 2006b). One vital observation from the respondents��� various comments was that race has meaning in their encounters and interaction with the police in the country. This result led the author to conclude that the relation between the police and immigrants is still a challenge, as there is rampant fear and distrust towards the police by some segments of the participating respondents in the study. In the fourth paper the focus was on examining the respondents��� view of the police, with special emphasis on race and culture as well as the respondents��� perspective on police behaviour in Turku. This is because race, as it was relayed to me in the study, is a significant predictor of police perception (Egharevba, 2005a; Egharevba and Hannikianen, 2005). It is a known scientific fact that inter-group racial attitudes are the representation of group competition and perceived threat to power and status (Group-position theory). According to Blumer (1958) a sense of group threat is an essential element for the emergence of racial prejudice. Consequently, it was essential that we explored the existing relationship between the respondents and the police in order to have an understanding of this concept. The result indicates some local and international contextual issues and assumptions that were of importance tackling prejudice and discrimination as it exists within the police in the country. Moreover, we have to also remember that, for years, many of these African immigrants have been on the receiving end of unjust law enforcement in their various countries of origin, which has resulted in many of them feeling inferior and distrustful of the police even in their own country of origin. While discussing the issues of cultural difference and how it affects policing, we must also keep in mind the socio-cultural background of the participants, their level of language proficiency and educational background. The research data analysed in this study also confirmed the difficulties associated with cultural misunderstandings in interpreting issues and how these misunderstandings have affected police and immigrant relations in Finland. Finally, the fifth paper focussed on cadets��� attitudes towards African immigrants as well as serving police officers��� interaction with African clients. Secondly, the police level of awareness of African immigrants��� distrustfulness of their profession was unclear. For this reason, my questions in this fifth study examined the experiences and attitudes of police cadets and serving police officers as well as those of African immigrants in understanding how to improve this relationship in the country. The data was based on (n=88) immigrant participants, (n=45) police cadets and 6 serving police officers from the Turku police department. The result suggests that there is distrust of the police in the respondents��� interaction; this tends to have galvanised a heightened tension resulting from the lack of language proficiency (Egharevba and White, 2007; Egharevba and Hannikainen, 2005, and Egharevba, 2006b) The result also shows that the allegation of immigrants as being belittled by the police stems from the misconceptions of both parties as well as the notion of stop and search by the police in Turku. All these factors were observed to have contributed to the alleged police evasiveness and the lack of regular contact between the respondents and the police in their dealings. In other words, the police have only had job-related contact with many of the participants in the present study. The results also demonstrated the complexities caused by the low level of education among some of the African immigrants in their understanding about the Finnish culture, norms and values in the country. Thus, the framework constructed in these studies embodies diversity in national culture as well as the need for a further research study with a greater number of respondents (both from the police and immigrant/majority groups), in order to explore the different role cultures play in immigrant and majority citizens��� understanding of police work.

���Jos tiet����, mit�� haluaa.��� Seurantatutkimus lukio-opiskelijoiden itses����telyst��, opiskelun kulusta ja odotusten toteutumisesta

Tutkimuksen p����tarkoituksena on selvitt���� lukio-opiskelijoiden k��sityksi�� oppimisensa itses����telystrategioista. Lukiokoulutuksessa toteutetut muutokset kuten valinnanmahdollisuuksien lis����ntyminen ovat antaneet lukio-opiskelijoille kasvaneen mahdollisuuden omanlaisensa lukio-opiskelupolun suunnitteluun ja yksil��lliseen tavoitteenasetteluun. Ty��ss�� tarkastellaan my��s lukio-opiskelijoiden opintojen kulkua, erilaisia opiskeluodotuksia ja niiden toteutumista sek�� n��iden yhteytt�� itses����telyyn. Tutkimus toteutettiin seurantatutkimuksena, jossa kyselylomakkeilla ker��ttiin tietoa syksyll�� 2004 Turun kaupungin suomenkielisiss�� p��iv��lukioissa (10 koulua) opintonsa aloittavilta opiskelijoilta kahdesti; ensimm��isen�� ja kolmantena opiskeluvuotena. Tutkimuksessa oli mukana 245 opiskelijaa, 142 tytt���� ja 103 poikaa. Tutkimuksen vastausprosentti oli 84 %. Kyselylomakkeiden itses����tely�� ja oppimisorientaatioita koskevat kysymykset pohjautuivat Jan Vermuntin ILS-oppimistyylimittariin (Inventory of Learning Styles) (Vermunt 1994; 1996). Lis��ksi haastateltiin 15 tutkimuksessa mukana ollutta opiskelijaa. Kyselylomakeaineisto analysoitiin ristiintaulukoinneilla, korrelaatiokertoimilla, t-testeill�� ja erilaisilla varianssianalyyseill��. Itses����telystrategiamittarin nelj��n summamuuttujan oletus testattiin erikseen mittauksissa 1 ja 2 konfirmatorisen faktorianalyysin avulla. Tutkimuksessa identifioitiin klusterianalyysill�� tehdyss�� ryhmittelyss�� nelj�� erilaista lukio-opiskelijaryhm����: menestyv��t navigoijat, tavalliset tasapainoilijat, s����telem��tt��m��t kulkeutujat ja ylikuormittuneet avuntarvitsijat. Navigoijille on tyypillist�� niin prosessin/ tulosten kuin sis��ll��n suhteen korkea itses����tely. Tyypillinen piirre navigoijien kohdalla on my��s ulkoisen s����telyn korkea taso. Avuntarvitsijat eroavat muista ryhmist�� selke��sti korkeampien puutteellisten s����telystrategioidensa perusteella, vaikka heid��n itses����telyns�� on suhteellisesti niihin ja muihin ryhmiin n��hden melko korkealla tasolla. Tasapainoilijat sijoittuvat itses����telyn ja ulkoisen s����telyn osalta ryhmien keskitasolle. Kulkeutujien itses����tely samoin kuin ulkoinen s����tely ovat ryhmien matalinta tasoa. Tuloksista n��hd����n, ett�� kehittyneemm��ll�� itses����telyll�� on selv�� yhteys lukio-opintojen sujuvuuteen ja opintomenestykseen, mutta noin kolmasosalle opiskelijoista itses����telev��, suunnitelmallinen tavoitteenasettelu on vaikeaa. Navigoijilla ja tasapainoilijoilla opiskelu on sek�� heille itselleen mielek��st�� ett�� ulkoisesti arvioituna tehokasta. Joidenkin opiskelijoiden erityisesti avuntarvitsijoiden ja kulkeutujien keskuudessa opintojen kulku sen sijaan hapuilee. Lukiolaisten opiskeluun kohdistuvien odotusten voidaan t��m��n tutkimuksen tuloksen perusteella katsoa ennustavan todellista opintojen kulkua ja opintomenestyst�� melko hyvin. Eroja on sek�� tavoitetasossa, opiskeluprosessiin liittyviss�� kokemuksissa ett�� jatko-opintosuunnitelmissa ja ne ovat yhteydess�� sukupuoleen, is��n sosioekonomiseen asemaan, erikoislinjalla opiskeluun sek�� lukion alun itses����telyryhmiin.

Lapsen sosiaalisen kompetenssin tukeminen ��� vanhempien ep��suorat ja suorat vaikutustavat

T��ss�� tutkimuksessa tarkastellaan vanhempien havaintoja ja k��sityksi�� lapsen sosiaalisesta kompetenssista. Lapsen sosiaalisesta kompetenssista tarkastelun kohteena ovat erityisesti vertaissuhteet, sosiaaliset taidot ja sosiaalinen k��ytt��ytyminen. Tarkoituksena on selvitt���� vanhempien n��kemyksi�� lapsen sosiaalisesta verkostosta ja lapsesta sosiaalisena toimijana. Kiinnostuksen kohteena on my��s, miten vanhemmat vaikuttamaan lapsen sosiaaliseen kompetenssiin. Vanhempien vaikutuksessa voidaan erottaa ep��suora ja suora vaikutus. Vanhempien ep��suoraan vaikutukseen kuuluvat perheen sosioekonomiset tekij��t, vanhemmuuteen ja lastenkasvatukseen liittyv��t k��yt��nn��t sek�� lapsen ja vanhemman v��linen vuorovaikutus. Suora vaikutus sis��lt���� vanhempien eri roolit ja teht��v��t sosiaalisen kompetenssin edist��miseksi. Vanhempien ep��suorilla ja suorilla vaikutustavoilla on havaittu olevan merkitt��v���� vaikutusta lapsen sosiaalisen kompetenssiin muotoutumiseen ja sen laatuun. Tutkimuksessa selvitet����n vertaissuhdeongelmaisten ja ei-ongelmaisten lasten vanhempien v��lisi�� eroja n��iss�� vaikutustavoissa. Tutkimuksessa hy��dynnet����n kyselylomake- ja haastatteluaineistoja. Kyselylomakeaineisto (N=156) ker��ttiin ���Origins of Exclusion in Early Childhood���-tutkimusprojektissa, jossa tutkittiin lasten vertaissuhteita, sosiaalisia taitoja sek�� sosiaalista k��ytt��ytymist�� kolmen vuoden seurantatutkimuksena p��iv��kodista kouluun. Perhekysely toteutettiin lasten ollessa kuusivuotiaita. Vanhempien haastatteluaineisto (N=55) koostuu projektissa mukana olleiden lasten vanhempien teemahaastatteluista. Perhekysely�� analysoidaan tilastollisin analyysimenetelmin. Laadullisen aineiston analyysimenetelm��n�� k��ytet����n sis��ll��nanalyysia. Vanhempien k��sityksiss�� lasten sosiaalinen verkosto rakentui kotiymp��rist��ss��, koulussa, p��iv��kodissa sek�� suvun ja harrastusten parissa muodostuneista suhteista. Tutkimustulosten perusteella on havaittavissa, ett�� vertaissuhdeongelmaisten ja ei-ongelmaisten lasten sosiaaliset verkostot ovat osin erilaiset. Vanhempien arviointien mukaan my��s lasten sosiaalisissa taidoissa, k��ytt��ytymisess��, asennoitumisessa sosiaaliseen kanssak��ymiseen sek�� ryhm����n ja leikkeihin liittyviss�� strategioissa on eroavaisuuksia. Tutkimuksen pohjalta voidaan todeta, ett�� vanhemmat pystyv��t arvioimaan hyvin yksityiskohtaisesti lapsensa sosiaalisia taitoja ja k��ytt��ytymist��. Kaikilla vanhemmilla ei kuitenkaan ollut riitt��v��sti tietoa lasten kaveripiirist�� tai sen laadusta eik�� lasten sosiaalisesta orientaatiosta. Vanhempien ep��suorissa vaikutustavoissa oli eroja, mutta my��s yht��l��isyyksi��. Sosioekonomisia tekij��it�� koskevan tarkastelun perusteella vertaissuhdeongelmaisten lasten perheiden taloudelliset ongelmat, isien ty��tt��myys ja lapsen erityisen tuen tarve olivat yhteydess�� lapsen sosiaalisten suhteiden ongelmiin. L��hes kaikki tutkimukseen osallistuneet vanhemmat kokivat vanhemmuuden ja kasvatusteht��v��n kuitenkin hyvin my��nteisen�� ja tyytyv��isyytt�� tuottavana asiana el��m��ss��. Valtaosa vanhemmista piti lapsen ja aikuisen v��list�� vuorovaikutusta positiivisena, vaikka lapsen kanssa ei aina ollutkaan helppoa tulla toimeen. Tyytyv��isyydest�� huolimatta ��idit n��kiv��t itsess����n enemm��n kehittymisen tarpeita vanhempana kuin is��t. Vanhemmuudessa korostuivat ohjaaminen ja kontrolli, mutta my��s hoiva, l��mp�� ja vastavuoroisuus. Hoiva ja l��mp�� sek�� rajojen asettaminen askarruttivat vanhempia suuresti. Vertaissuhdeongelmaisten lasten vanhemmat tarvitsisivat opastusta ohjaavan vanhemmuuden l��yt��miseksi. Vertaissuhdeongelmaisten lasten vanhemmat kuvasivat kasvatuksen kuormittavuutta, ajan puutetta sek�� muuntuvaa isyytt�� ja ��itiytt�� ei-ongelmaisten lasten vanhempia enemm��n. Ty��n ja perheen yhteensovittamisen vaikeus tuli my��s esille vanhempien kuvauksissa. Kyvykk����n vanhemmuuden kannalta ep��virallinen l��heisist�� muodostunut tukiverkosto on t��rke�� vanhemman apu ja kasvatuksen turva. Ensisijaisena tukitahona on ep��virallinen verkosto, joka koostuu yst��vist��, tuttavista, ty��tovereista, puolisosta ja omista vanhemmista. Vertaissuhdeongelmaisten lasten vanhempien mukaan arjen tukea ei kuitenkaan ole aina saatavilla, eik�� tukiverkosto tyydytt��nyt vanhempia. Vanhempien k��sityksiss�� perheen vuorovaikutus sujui hyvin ja vastuu kodista ja kasvatusteht��v��st�� oli molemmilla vanhemmilla tasavertaisesti. K��yt��nn��n vastuu kasvatuksesta sek�� erilaisten taitojen opettamisesta lapsille kuului ��itien teht��viin. Vanhempien n��kemyksiss�� lapsen sosiaalinen maailma rakentui l��hiymp��rist��n tarjoamista mahdollisuuksista. Vanhempien suoriin vaikutustapoihin liittyvien tulosten mukaan vanhemmat pit��v��t harrastuksia merkitt��v��n�� sosiaalista kompetenssia edist��v��n�� tekij��n��. Ei-ongelmaisilla lapsilla oli enemm��n ja monipuolisempia harrastuksia kuin ongelmaisilla lapsilla. Vaikka vanhemmat eiv��t mielt��neetk����n omaa toimintaansa kaveripiiriin ohjaamiseksi, heill�� useinkin oli runsaasti erilaisia rooleja ja teht��vi�� sosiaalisten suhteiden ja sosiaalisten taitojen opettamisessa. Lapsen sosiaalisten suhteiden organisoinnissa, ohjaamisessa, valvonnassa ja neuvonnassa oli vanhempiryhmien v��lill�� eroja. Vertaissuhdeongelmaisten lasten vanhemmat eiv��t olleet riitt��v��n hyvin perill�� lapsen taidoista ja kyvykkyydest�� tuottaakseen oikea-aikaista ohjausta ja tukeakseen lasta riitt��v��sti sopivilla tavoilla. Vanhempien toimintaa n��ytt���� ohjaavan vakaasti se uskomus, ett�� lapsen kaverisuhteet ovat pelk��st����n h��nen oma asiansa. Vanhemmat arvostivat paljon sosiaalisia taitoja ja pyrkiv��t opettamaan niit�� lapsilleen systemaattisesti. Ohjaamisen tavoissa vanhemmat poikkesivat toisistaan. Tutkimus antaa viitteit��, ett�� eiongelmaisten lasten vanhemmat ovat sensitiivisempi��, vastavuoroisempia ja lapsen n��k��kulmaa ja tarpeita l��ht��kohtanaan pit��vi�� sek�� tunnetaitoihin ja tunnetilan k��sittelyyn keskittyv��mpi�� kuin ongelmaisten lasten vanhemmat. Vanhempien ja lasten vuorovaikutuksen vaikeudet, ylimalkainen ja ep��johdonmukainen sosiaalisten taitojen, k��ytt��ytymisen sek�� suhteiden ohjaus sek�� monet perheen voimavarojen puutteet voivat haitata vakavasti lapsen sosiaalisen kompetenssin kehittymist��. Vanhemmilla on kuitenkin taitoa arvioida lapsensa sosiaalista kyvykkyytt�� ja halua toimia hyvin kasvatusteht��v��ss����n. Vanhemmuuden tukemisessa olisivatkin t��rkeit�� ep��virallisen tukiverkoston lis��ksi l��hiymp��rist��n perheille ja lapsille suunnatut palvelut, monitahoinen yhteisty�� perheiden, lasten ja heid��n kanssaan ty��skentelevien ammattilaisten kesken sek�� yhteiskunnan perheit�� koskevat s����d��kset ja tukitoimet.

Rural Food System Change in Tanzania during the Post-Ujamaa Era. A Case Study from Western Bagamoyo District

Food systems in Sub-Saharan Africa have been rapidly transforming during the recent decades with diverse outcomes on human development and environment. This study explores the food system change in rural villages in eastern Tanzania where subsistence agriculture has traditionally been the main source of livelihood. The focus is on the salient changes in the spatial dimensions and structural composition of the food system in the context of economic liberalization that has taken place after the end of the socialist <i>ujamaa</i> era in the mid-1980s. In addition, the linkages of the changes are examined in relation to food security, socio-economic situation, livelihoods, and local environment. The approach of the study is geographical, but also involves various multi-disciplinary elements, particularly from development studies. The research methods included thematic and questionnaire interviews, participatory tools, and the analysis of land use/ cover data and official documents. Several earlier studies that were made in the area during the late 1970s and 1980s provided an important reference base. The study shows that subsistence farming has lost its dominant role in food provisioning due to the declining productivity of land, livestock losses, and the increasing shift of labour to non-farm sectors. Also rapid population growth has added to the pressure on land and other natural resources. Despite the increasing need for money for buying marketed foods and other necessities, the nutritional situation shows improvement and severe malnutrition has diminished. However, the long-term sustainability of this transformation raises concerns. Firstly, the food security situation continues to be fragile and prone to shocks such as adverse climatic conditions, crop failures and price hikes. Secondly, the commodification of the food system and livelihoods in general is linked to rapid environmental degradation in the area, particularly the loss of soil fertility and deforestation. The situation calls for efforts that take more determined and holistic approaches towards sustainable development of the rural food system with particular focus on the role and viability of small-scale farming.

Soil salinization and maize and cowpea yield in the crop rotation system using saline waters

The use of saline water and the reuse of drainage water for irrigation depend on long-term strategies that ensure the sustainability of socio-economic and environmental impacts of agricultural systems. In this study, it was evaluated the effects of irrigation with saline water in the dry season and fresh water in the rainy season on the soil salt accumulation yield of maize and cowpea, in a crop rotation system. The experiment was conducted in the field, using a randomized complete block design, with five replications. The first crop was installed during the dry season of 2007, with maize irrigated with water of different salinities (0.8, 2.2, 3.6 and 5.0 dS m-1). The maize plants were harvested at 90 days after sowing (DAS), and vegetative growth, dry mass of 1000 seeds and grain yield were evaluated. The same plots were utilized for the cultivation of cowpea, during the rainy season of 2008. At the end of the crop, cycle plants of this species were harvested, being evaluated the vegetative growth and plant yield. Soil samples were collected before and after maize and cowpea cultivation. The salinity of irrigation water above 2.2 dS m-1 reduced the yield of maize during the dry season. The high total rainfall during the rainy season resulted in leaching of salts accumulated during cultivation in the dry season, and eliminated the possible negative effects of salinity on cowpea plants. However, this crop showed atypical behavior with a significant proportion of vegetative mass and low pod production, which reduced the efficiency of this strategy of crop rotation under the conditions of this study.

Syntyyk�� Suomeen puulaaksoja - Suomen puutuoteteollisuuden pk-yritysten tila ja tulevaisuus

Mets��teollisuus on tullut Suomeen ulkomaisen p����oman ja tietotaidon avulla vajaat kaksisataa vuotta sitten. Se on toiminut melkein koko jatkosodan j��lkeisen ajan suojatussa ymp��rist��ss�� ja ulkomaisesta kilpailusta riippumattomassa toimintaymp��rist��ss��. Kuten Porter ja muut ovat todistaneet, t��llainen toimintaymp��rist�� ei kehit�� kansainv��lisesti kilpailukykyist�� teollisuutta globaaleilla markkinoilla. Liittyminen Euroopan unioniin ja sittemmin Euroopan rahaliittoon saattoi puunjalostusteollisuuden t��ysin uudenlaiseen kilpailutilanteeseen. Sama tapahtui my��s alan pk-yrityksille, jotka olivat joutuneet toimimaan heikosti kilpailluilla raaka-ainemarkkinoilla. Tutkimus on tulevaisuudentutkimus, jossa tutkimusongelmia l��hestyt����n kolmen teorian avulla. Porterin klusteriteoria tarjoaa mahdollisuuden arvioida mets��teollisuutta sek�� kokonaisuutena ett�� toimivana monimuotoisena organisaationa, jossa kustannukset ja hinta muodostuvat arvoketjun toimijoiden osakustannuksista. Bionomiateoria eli darvinistinen talousteoria testaa suomalaisen puunjalostusteollisuuden pk-yritysten kilpailukyky�� ja paineita hakeutua edullisemmille toiminta- alueille. Evoluutioteoria tarkastelee sukupolvenvaihdoksen problematiikkaa. Sukupolvenvaihdoksen onnistuminen muodostuu puutoimialan el��m��n ja kuoleman kysymykseksi. T��m�� on etenkin pk-yrityksi�� kohtaava ongelma. Asiaa selvitettiin Mauno Rintalan suorittamalla kyselytutkimuksella Puuteollisuusyritt��jien j��senist��n keskuudessa. Ongelma johtuu suurista sodan j��lkeen syntyneist�� ik��luokista. N��m�� vuosina 1945��� 50 syntyneet ovat siirtym��ss�� el��kkeelle vuosien 2005 ja 2015 v��lill��. Kyseisiss�� ik��luokissa yritystiheys on noin kaksi kertaa suurempi kuin sen j��lkeisiss�� ik��luokissa. Suoritetun kyselyn sek�� muiden suomalaisten ja kansainv��listen tutkimusten perusteella n��ytt���� silt��, ett�� el��kkeelle siirrytt��ess�� vain noin 30 %:lla yrityksist�� on jatkaja tiedossa suvusta tai l��hipiirist��. T��m�� merkitsee sit��, ett�� 70 % el��k��ityv��n ik��luokan omistamista yrityksist�� poistuu pysyv��sti markkinoilta. Suomessa poistuma merkitsee noin 40 % koko yritysvarannosta eli noin 80 000 yrityst��. Tilastot toimivien yritysten m����r��st�� ovat kuitenkin hyvin ristiriitaisia, joten todellista m����r���� on mahdoton arvioida. Noin suuren m����r��n poistuminen markkinoilta uhkaa jo hyvinvointivaltion perusrakenteita. Tutkimustulos edellytt���� nopeita toimenpiteit�� teollisten pkyritysten pelastamiseksi ja s��ilytt��miseksi Suomessa. Sukupolvenvaihdoksen onnistuminen on t��ss�� prosessissa ensiarvoisessa asemassa. Kaikkien edell�� mainittujen yritysten poistuminen markkinoilta edellytt��isi noin 400 000 uuden yrityksen perustamista, koska ainoastaan noin 20 % yrityksist�� selvi���� ensimm��iset kolme vuotta. Tutkimukseen perustuen esitet����n prosessimalli sukupolvenvaihdoksen suorittamiseksi. Suomen t��rkeimmiss�� kilpailijamaissa valtioiden mets��omistus on m����r����v��ss�� asemassa. Meill�� mets��t ovat yksityisess�� omistuksessa ja vain pieni osa valtion omistuksessa. Puumarkkinat toimivat markkinatalouden ehdoilla ilman valtion ohjausta. Ongelmaksi on kehittym��ss�� puun saanti. Mets��nomistus on sukupolvien my��t�� hajaantunut hyvin pieniksi mets��l��iksi. Nykyiset mets��nomistajat asuvat kaupungeissa ja ovat p����osin palkkaty��ss��. He eiv��t ole samalla tavoin riippuvaisia puutuloista kuin heid��n esi-is��ns��. Mets��verotuksen uudistuminen lis���� puun saannin ep��varmuutta. Se on muuttumassa pinta-alaverotuksesta puun myynnin verotukseen. Puun myynti on vilkasta ennen j��rjestelmien vaihtumista ja v��h��isemp���� sen j��lkeen. My��s n��it�� ongelmia on pyritty ratkomaan uudenlaisen mets��nomistusmallin avulla. Puuteollisuus on hyvin vanha teollisuudenala. Raaka-aine muodostaa m����r����v��n osan kustannuksista. Muutokset ovat hitaita ja todelliset innovaatiot pitk��kestoisia. Uusia innovaatioita tapahtuu harvoin. Kannattavuutta parannetaan tuoteprosessien ja arvoketjujen kehitt��misen kautta. Yhteiskunnan osuus alan kehitt��misess�� ja s��ilytt��misess�� on ratkaiseva. Asioiden moninaisuus tekee tutkimuksen vaikeaksi, mutta sit��kin t��rke��mm��ksi kansantalouden kannalta. T��llaisissa suurissa murroksissa korostuu kaikkien p����tt��vien tahojen henkinen valmius ja tahto tehd�� oikeita ratkaisuja oikeaan aikaan.

Koulutusinflaatio. Koulutusekspansio ja koulutuksen arvo Suomessa 1970���2008

Sotienj��lkeisen�� aikana Suomessa jokainen sukupolvi on ollut edellist�� korkeammin koulutettu ja kehitys n��ytt���� yh�� vain jatkuvan. Kun 1970-luvulla alle kolmanneksella v��est��st�� oli perusasteen j��lkeinen koulutus, nyky����n v��hint����n keskiasteen koulutuksen puuttuminen on l��hes yht�� harvinaista. Koulutusinflaatio viittaa koulutuksen arvon laskuun ty��markkinoilla. Koulutuksen arvon inflatoituessa saman tasoisella koulutuksella p����dyt����n yh�� alempiin yhteiskunnallisiin asemiin. V��it��skirjassa tarkastellaan koulutuksen arvon muuttumista Suomessa vuosina 1970���2008. Empiirinen osuus muodostuu kolmesta referee-journaaleissa julkaistusta artikkelista. Ensimm��isess�� artikkelissa tarkastellaan ylemm��n toimihenkil��n asemaan p����tyneiden osuutta sek�� suhteellista tulotasoa eri koulutusasteilla. Toinen artikkeli keskittyy koulutuksen ja huono-osaisuuden v��liseen yhteyteen. Kolmannessa artikkelissa tarkastellaan koulutusekspansion ja koulutusinflaation v��list�� yhteytt��. Kahdessa ensimm��isess�� artikkelissa k��ytet����n samaa rekisteripohjaista otosaineistoa.Aineisto koostuu nelj��st�� 4000 henkil��n otoksesta, jotka edustavat 30���39-vuotiaita suomalaisia vuosina 1970, 1980, 1990 ja 2000. Kolmannessa artikkelissa k��ytet����n aggregaattidataa vuosilta 1970, 1980, 1985, 1990, 1993, 1995, 2000, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007 ja 2008. Viimeinen aineisto kattaa 30���39-vuotiaat ty��lliset suomalaiset mainituilta vuosilta, se ei siis ole otospohjainen. Tulosten perusteella koulutusinflaatio on ollut Suomessa vahvaa, erityisesti alimmalla korkea-asteella ja alemmalla korkeakouluasteella. Hyvinvointipuutteet lis����ntyiv��t v��hiten koulutettujen keskuudessa, mutta v��hemm��n kuin olisi voinut olettaa. Raja, jonka ylitt��v��ll�� koulutuksella hyvinvointipuutteiden riski laskee huomattavasti, on noussut ��� perusasteen ja keskiasteen v��list�� keskiasteen ja alimman korkea-asteen v��liin. Koulutusekspansion yhteys koulutusinflaatioon on ollut eritt��in vahva, erityisesti alemmalla korkeakouluasteella.

Peruskoulun yl��kouluvalinnat Turussa. Perheiden yl��kouluvalintojen rakentuminen ��itien puheissa ja toimissa

Tutkimuksessa tarkastellaan peruskoulun yl��kouluvalintoja Turussa. Tarkastelun keski��ss�� ovat vuonna 1997 syntyneiden turkulaislasten vanhempien yl��kouluvalintaa koskeva yleinen sek�� omaan lapseen kiinnittyv�� puhe ja toimijuus paikallisessa institutionaalisessa kouluvalintatilassa sek�� vanhempien lapsen koulutukseen ja kouluvalintaan liitt��m��t perustelut, merkitykset, arvot ja arvostukset. T��m��n lis��ksi tutkimuksessa tarkastellaan puheesta ja toimista rakentuvia perheiden kouluvalintastrategioita, joita peilataan ��itien koulutuksellisiin ja sosiaalisiin resursseihin sek�� paikalliseen toimintapolitiikkaan. Tutkimus ei kerro ainoastaan paikallisessa kontekstissa tapahtuvista kouluvalinnoista, vaan laajemmin yhteiskunnassa vallitsevista hierarkioista ja arvoista sek�� koulutukseen ja sosioekonomiseen asemaan linkittyvist�� normatiivisista toimintatavoista. Tutkimuksessa k��ytet����n haastattelu- ja kyselyaineistoja. Aineistot ker��ttiin osana kahta laajempaa Suomen Akatemian rahoittamaa Helsingin ja Turun yliopistojen kanssa yhteisty��ss�� tehty�� tutkimusprojektia Vanhemmat ja kouluvalinta ��� Perheiden koulutusstrategiat, eriarvoistuminen ja paikalliset koulupolitiikat suomalaisessa peruskoulussa (VAKOVA) 2009���2012 sek�� Parents and School Choice. Family Strategies, Segregation and School Policies in Chilean and Finnish Basic Schooling (PASC) 2010���2013. Tutkimusaineistot koostuvat 87 turkulais��idin haastattelusta ja kyselyaineistosta. Kyselyaineiston analyysiss�� on k��ytetty kuvailevia tilastollisia menetelmi��, ja sit�� k��ytet����n ensisijaisesti taustoittamaan haastatteluaineistoa. Haastatteluaineiston analyysi perustuu p����asiallisesti teema-analyysiin, mutta toimija-asema-analyysin osalta my��s diskursiiviseen l��hestymistapaan. Haastatteluaineiston pohjalta esiin nousseiden lasten koulutusta ja kouluvalintoja koskevien kuvausten perusteella perheiden yl��kouluvalinnat jaettiin kolmeen erityyppiseen valintastrategiaan: perinteiseen l��hikouluvalintastrategiaan (n=41), ambivalenttiseen kouluvalintastrategiaan (n=23) ja p����m����r��tietoiseen kouluvalintastrategiaan (n=23). Jokainen kolmesta strategiasta piti sis��ll����n kahdenlaista toimijuutta kouluvalintakent��ll��. Ryhmittely kouluvalintastrategioittain ja toimija-asemittain perustui ��itien puhetapaan kouluvalinnoista ja yleisemmin koulutukseen liitetyist�� merkityksist�� ja arvoista sek�� konkreettiseen toimintaan kouluvalinnan suhteen. L��hikouluvalintastrategiaa suosivien j��lkel��iset siirtyiv��t koulunsa yleisluokalle. Perheet toimivat valintakent��ll�� kaupungin rajaavan toimintapolitiikan ohjaamina, jolloin kouluvalinta n��ytti passiiviselta. Osoitteenmukaiseen kouluun siirtymist�� perusteltiin praktisilla syill��; koulumatkan pituudella, kulkuyhteyksill�� ja lapsen kaverisuhteilla. Hyvinvointivaltion edellytykseksi n��htiin kaikille taattu samanvertainen koulutus ja edelleen luotettiin perinteist�� peruskoulua m����ritt��v����n mahdollisuuksien tasa-arvoon. Koulutuksen yhdeksi t��rke��ksi teht��v��ksi n��htiin lapsen kasvattaminen hyvinvoivaksi ja onnelliseksi. Vanhempien toiminta oli perinteisen kouluvalintastrategian mukaista. Ambivalenttista kouluvalintastrategiaa k��ytt��vist�� perheist�� toiminta kouluvalintakent��ll�� oli kahtalaista. ��idit joko harkitsivat kouluvalintoja tai vertailivat kouluja ja niihin p����symahdollisuuksia realistisesti tasapainoillen ohjaavan ja mahdollistavan toimintapolitiikan v��limaastossa. T��rkeint�� oli olla tietoinen kaupungin kouluvalintapolitiikasta sek�� siit��, ett�� valinnoilla voi olla merkityst�� j��lkikasvun koulupolulle. Eri vaihtoehtojen punnitsemisen j��lkeen p����dyttiin useimmin l��hikoulun painotettuun opetukseen. Lapsen peruskoulutusta haluttiin rikastaa painotetulla opetuksella ja h��nen toivottiin p����sev��n motivoituneeseen ja oppimismy��nteiseen koululuokkaan. Valintoja tehtiin paikallisen toimintapolitiikan puitteissa lapsen parasta toivoen. Koulutuksen teht��v��ksi n��htiin lapsen intellektuaalinen kasvu kiedottuna koulutuksen tuottamaan hyvinvointiin ja onnellisuuteen. Perheiden valintastrategiaksi muodostui ambivalenttinen strategia motivoituneen oppimisymp��rist��n l��yt��miseksi. P����m����r��tietoista kouluvalintastrategiaa k��ytt��v��t vanhemmat hy��dynsiv��t aktiivisesti erilaisia reittej�� tiettyihin yl��kouluihin p����semiseksi. Ennakoivien perheiden lapset olivat opiskelleet sellaisessa alakoulussa, joka ei kuulunut yl��koulun oppilasalueelle, mutta takasi lapselle reitin suosittuun yl��kouluun. M����r��tietoisten perheiss�� havahduttiin valintoihin puolestaan yl��kouluun siirrytt��ess��, jolloin koulupaikkaa haettiin sopivimman painotetun opetuksen ja koulun maineen mukaan pois l��hiyl��koulusta. L��hikoulu -periaate koettiin ep��oikeudenmukaiseksi, sill�� lapsella tulee olla oikeus toteuttaa omia kykyj����n ja lahjakkuuttaan valikoidussa oppilasryhm��ss�� ja perheill�� mahdollisuus valita lapsen koulu. Paikallinen toimintapolitiikka ei n��ytt��nyt rajaavan vanhempien kouluvalintoja. Koulutuksen tarkoitukseksi n��htiin intellektuaalinen kasvu ja akateemissivist��v�� teht��v��. P����m����r��tietoisen kouluvalintavalintastrategian tavoitteena oli perheelle sopivan habituksen takaaminen. Paikallinen toimintapolitiikka mahdollisti vanhempien erilaisten kouluvalintastrategioiden rakentumisen ohjaten ensisijaisesti l��hiyl��kouluun, mutta samalla mahdollistaen koulun valinnan toissijaisen haun kriteerein. Kouluvalintastrategioihin ja toimintatapaan kouluvalintakent��ll�� kytkeytyi vanhempien koulutukseen liitt��m��t arvot sek�� kulttuuriset ja sosiaaliset resurssit ja se, miten niit�� k��ytettiin.

Extracts of Azadirachta indica and Melia azedarach seeds inhibit folliculogenesis in albino rats

The seed oil of Azadirachta indica A. Juss (neem) is used in traditional medicine for its antidiabetic, spermicidal, antifertility, antibacterial, and wound healing properties. The present study was undertaken to investigate the quantitative aspects of follicular development in cyclic female albino rats (135 �� 10 g; 8 groups with 6 animals in each group) after oral administration of polar (PF) and non-polar (NPF) fractions of A. indica seed extract at 3 and 6 mg kg body weight-1 day-1 and Melia azedarach Linn. (dharek) seed extract at 24 mg kg body weight-1 day-1 for 18 days. The extracts were prepared using a flash evaporator at 35��C and then dissolved in olive oil to prepare doses on a per kg body weight basis. There was a significant reduction (P = 0.05) in the number of normal single layered follicles (A. indica: 0.67 �� 0.33 and 4.67 �� 2.03 after 3 and 6 mg/kg NPF, and 3.33 �� 1.67 and 1.00 �� 1.00 after 3 and 6 mg/kg PF vs control: 72.67 �� 9.14 and M. azedarach: 0.60 �� 0.40 and 1.80 �� 1.2 after 24 mg/kg PF and NPF, respectively, vs control: 73.40 �� 7.02) and follicles in various stages (I-VII) of follicular development in all treatment groups. These extracts also significantly reduced (P = 0.05) the total number of normal follicles in the neem (14.67 �� 5.93 and 1.00 �� 1.00 after 3 and 6 mg/kg PF and 3.67 �� 0.88 and 5.33 �� 2.03 after 3 and 6 mg/kg NPF) and dharek (13.00 �� 3.58 and 14.60 �� 2.25 after 24 mg/kg NPF and PF) treatments compared to control (216.00 �� 15.72 and 222.20 �� 19.52, respectively). Currently, indiscriminate use of persistent and toxic rodenticides to control rodent populations has created serious problems such as resistance and environmental contamination. Therefore, it becomes necessary to use ecologically safe and biologically active botanical substances that are metabolized and are not passed on to the next trophic level, and that interfere with the reproductive potential particularly growth and differentiation of follicles. This may help elevate the socio-economic status of the country. Thus, the present study is an attempt to investigate the effects of A. indica and M. azedarach seed extracts on reproduction of albino rats.