En sjukdom af h��gst elakt sl��ckte : ��terfallsfebern p�� Sveaborg och i Karlskrona 1788-1790

Sommaren 1788 drabbades den svenska flottan av en sv��rartad febersjukdom. Febern, som senare definierats som febris recurrens el. ��terfallsfeber, hade sitt ursprung i den ryska flottan. Bes��ttningen ombord skeppet Vladislav, krigsbytet fr��n slaget vid Hogland, bar p�� ett stort antal smittade kl��dl��ss. Efter flottans ankomst till Sveaborg spred sig sjukdomen snabbt bland manskapet, men ��ven bland f��stningens garnison. F��rh��llandena inom milit��ren, b��de inom lantarm��n och framf��r allt inom flottan, var gynnsamma f��r epidemiers spridning. De tr��nga utrymmena, den ensidiga kosten, det underm��liga dricksvattnet, den bristande hygienen: allt gynnade uppkomsten och spridningen av olika epidemier. Manskapets f��rs��mrade allm��ntillst��nd gjorde, att sjukdomarna blev mera f��r��dande ��n vad de i andra f��rh��llanden skulle ha varit. Bristen p�� manskap och material under Gustav III:s ryska krig var enormt, bl.a. var bristen p�� medicinsk personal och -utrustning skriande. D�� flottan och arm��n drabbades av en epidemi av katastrofala dimensioner stod myndigheterna hj��lpl��sa. Epidemin visaqr tydligt hur illa f��rberett hela kriget var och hur missk��tt flottans sjukv��rd var. P�� Sveaborg var f��rh��llandena fruktansv��rda. Halva garnisonen uppges ha avlidit, och det l��g travar av lik ��verallt. Kaserner m.fl. byggnader adapterades till provisoriska lasarett och det r��dde brist p�� allt. De medicinska myndigheterna representerades av den till f��stningen skickade andra f��ltl��karen, som tillsammans med l��karna p�� f��stningen gjorde sitt b��sta i enlighet med tidens v��rdmetoder. D�� den svenska ��rlogsflottan i november seglat ��ver tilll Karlskrona spred sig epidemin i staden. Sjukdomen grasserade ocks�� bland de civila. D�� sjukdomens orsak och utbredningss��tt var ok��nda, kunde man varken hindra epidemin fr��n att spridas eller genomf��ra adekvata v��rdmetoder. Tv��rtom, med de hemf��rlovade b��tsm��nnen spred sig sjukdomen ��ven till de ��vriga delarna av riket. Under 1789 var flottan p.g.a. de m��nga sjukdomsfallen n��rmast operationsoduglig. Under v��rvintern och v��ren 1790 avtog epidemin. Epidemin var ett sv��rt medicinskt problem. F��r att utreda situationen i Karlskrona skickade den tillf��rordnade regeringen, utredningskommissionen och Collegium medicum sina egna representanter till staden. De olika l��karnas sjukdomssyner grundade sig fr��mst p�� tron om sjukdomars uppkomst genom miasma och f��rb��ttrandet av luftkvaliteten s��gs som en v��sentlig v��rdform. I arbetet j��mf��rs de olika myndigheternas och n��gra av de p�� platsen varande l��karnas syn p�� sjukdomens art, dess orsaker och ursprung. De flesta h��rleder sjukdomen till den ryska flottan, och n��mner n��gon form av smitta. Som fr��msta sjukdomsorsak n��mns dock miasma och de rekommenderade v��rdformerna representerade den humoralpatologiska synen. F��rste amiralitetsl��karen Arvid Faxe representerar dock en annan ��sikt, i det att han enbart tror p�� sjukdomens ��verf��ring via smitta. Epidemin var ocks�� ett politiskt problem. Epidemin var en lokal angel��genhet ��nda till dess att flottans operationer h��mmades av manskapsbristen, varefter den blev ett ��rende p�� h��gsta niv��. Kungen ingrep sommaren 1789 genom att grunda en kommision med r��tt vidstr��ckta befogenheter. I Karlskrona verkar de milit��ra myndigheterna och l��karna ha misstrott och skuldsatt varandra f��r katastrofen, och f��rh��llandet mellan de till staden s��nda utredarna och milit��rerna var likas�� inflammerat. Genom k��llorna ��terspeglas rivalitet, avund och inb��rdes konkurrens. Personalbristen var sv��r, och den skyldiga s��ktes utanf��r den egna kretsen. Den danskf��dde apotekaren med sina p��stott otj��nliga mediciner blev en ypperlig syndabock. ��rlogsflottan ber��knas i sjukdomar ha f��rlorat omkring 10.000 man i d��da, huvudsakligen i Karlskrona (civila inber��knade). Arm��n och Sk��rg��rdsflottan uppges likadeles ha mist omkring 10.000 man, medan antalet i strid stupade arm��soldater endast var ca 1500. Sammanlagt antas allts�� ca 20.000 m��nniskor ha mist livet; b��de i ��terfallsfeber, men ��ven i andra, samtidigt grasserande farsoter. I denna siffra ��r inte de ��vriga delarna av riket inber��knade. Epidemin i fr��ga kan allts�� p�� goda grunder anses vara det svenska 1700-talets st��rsta medicinska katastrof.

Gauge theory of a group of diffeomorphisms. I. General principles

Any (N+M)-parameter Lie group G with an N-parameter subgroup H can be realized as a global group of diffeomorphisms on an M-dimensional base space B, with representations in terms of transformation laws of fields on B belonging to linear representations of H. The gauged generalization of the global diffeomorphisms consists of general diffeomorphisms (or coordinate transformations) on a base space together with a local action of H on the fields. The particular applications of the scheme to space-time symmetries is discussed in terms of Lagrangians, field equations, currents, and source identities. Journal of Mathematical Physics is copyrighted by The American Institute of Physics.

Pasteurella multocida Expresses Two Lipopolysaccharide Glycoforms Simultaneously, but Only a Single Form Is Required for Virulence: Identification of Two Acceptor-Specific Heptosyl I Transferases

Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is a critical virulence determinant in Pasteurella multocida and a major antigen responsible for host protective immunity. In other mucosal pathogens, variation in LPS or lipooligosaccharide structure typically occurs in the outer core oligosaccharide regions due to phase variation. P. multocida elaborates a conserved oligosaccharide extension attached to two different, simultaneously expressed inner core structures, one containing a single phosphorylated 3-deoxy-D-manno-octulosonic acid (Kdo) residue and the other containing two Kdo residues. We demonstrate that two heptosyltransferases, HptA and HptB, add the first heptose molecule to the Kdo1 residue and that each exclusively recognizes different acceptor molecules. HptA is specific for the glycoform containing a single, phosphorylated Kdo residue (glycoform A), while HptB is specific for the glycoform containing two Kdo residues (glycoform B). In addition, KdkA was identified as a Kdo kinase, required for phosphorylation of the first Kdo molecule. Importantly, virulence data obtained from infected chickens showed that while wild-type P. multocida expresses both LPS glycoforms in vivo, bacterial mutants that produced only glycoform B were fully virulent, demonstrating for the first time that expression of a single LPS form is sufficient for P. multocida survival in vivo. We conclude that the ability of P. multocida to elaborate alternative inner core LPS structures is due to the simultaneous expression of two different heptosyltransferases that add the first heptose residue to the nascent LPS molecule and to the expression of both a bifunctional Kdo transferase and a Kdo kinase, which results in the initial assembly of two inner core structures.

Beta-Ketoacyl-ACP Synthase I/II from Plasmodium falciparum (PfFabB/F)-Is it B or F?

Condensing enzymes play an important and decisive role in terms of fatty acid composition of any organism. They can be classified as condensing enzymes involved in initiating the cycle and enzymes involved in elongating the initiated fatty acyl chain. In E. coli, two isoforms for the elongation condensing enzymes (FabB and FabF) exists whereas Plasmodium genome contains only one isoform. By in vitro complementation studies in E. coli CY244 cells, we show that PfFabB/ functions like E. coli FabF as the growth of the mutant cells could rescued only in the presence of oleic acid. But unlike bacterial enzyme, PfFabB/F does not increase the cis-vaccenic acid content in the mutant cells upon lowering the growth temperature. This study thus highlights the distinct properties of P. falciparum FabF which sets it apart from E. coli and most other enzymes of this family, described so far.

Betydelser i barnfamiljsbroschyrer : Systemisk-funktionell analys av den t��nkta l��saren och institutionen

This thesis concerns Swedish and Finland-Swedish brochures to families with children, presenting family allowances from the social insurance institutions in the two countries. The aim of the study is to analyse what meanings are conveyed with reference to the conceivable reader and the institution in the brochures. The material consists of information brochures in Swedish from Kela, the social insurance institution of Finland, and F��rs��kringskassan, the Swedish social insurance agency, issued during 2003���2006. The general theoretical framework is systemic-functional linguistics (SFL) as presented by Halliday & Matthiessen (2004) and Holmberg & Karlsson (2006). The study consists of a quantitative study of the lexical choices of the social insurance brochures. Furthermore, a qualitative process and participant analysis is annotated with the UAM Corpus tool and the results are quantified. Speech functions and modal auxiliaries are analysed qualitatively. The analysis shows that material and relational processes are most common. The relational and verbal processes are used more in the Sweden-Swedish brochures, while the material processes are more common in the Finland-Swedish brochures. The participants in the brochures are the institution, mentioned by its name, and the conceivable reader, directly addressed with ���you��� (du). In addition, the referent ���child��� is often mentioned. The participants assigned for the reader are Actor, Receiver, Carrier and Speaker. In the Finland-Swedish texts, the reader is often an Actor, while the reader in the Sweden-Swedish texts is a Carrier. Thus, the conceivable reader is an active participant who takes care of his or her own matters using the internet, communicates actively to the institution and has legal rights and obligations. The institution is visible in the texts but does not have an active role as the name of the institution is mostly used in circumstances. The institution is not often a participant, but when it is, it is Actor, Receiver, Listener and Carrier, expecting the clients to address it. Speech functions are performed in different ways. For instance, questions structure the reading process and commands are realised by modal auxiliaries, not by imperatives. The most common modal auxiliary is kan (can, may), and another common auxiliary is ska (shall, must). Statements are surrounded by subordinate clauses and adverbs that describe situations and criteria. The results of the study suggest that the brochures in the two countries are similar, in particular when produced in similar ways, that is, when the Finland-Swedish texts are not translated. Existing differences reflect the differences in the institutions, the social insurance systems and the cultural contexts. KEYWORDS: Finland-Swedish, Swedish, comparative analysis, SFL, discourse analysis, administrative language, institutional discourse, institutional communication

Drag p�� parnassen. Tv�� sextiotalsstudier. : Del I: Medelklass med m��nskligt ansikte. Medelklassradikalism i fyra romaner av Christer Kihlman, Jarl Sj��blom, Marianne Alopaeus och Ulla-Lena Lundberg. Del II: Modernistdebatten. Sak, person och f��lt i en finlandssvensk litteraturdebatt ��r 1965.

The objective of my dissertation Pull (or Draught, or Moves) at the Parnassus , is to provide a deeper understanding of Nordic Middle Class radicalism of the 1960 s as featured in Finland-Swedish literature. My approach is cultural materialist in a broad sense; social class is regarded a crucial aspect of the contents and contexts of the novels and literary discussions explored. In the first volume, Middle Class With A Human Face , novels by Christer Kihlman, Jarl Sj��blom, Marianne Alopaeus, and Ulla-Lena Lundberg, respectively, are read from the points of view of place, emotion, and power. The term "cryptotope" is used to designate the hidden places found to play an important role in all of these four narratives. Also, the "chronotope of the provincial small town", described by Mikhail Bakhtin in 1938, is exemplified in Kihlman s satirical novel, as is the chronotope of of war (Algeria, Vietnam) in those of Alopaeus and Lundberg s. All the four novels signal changes in the way general "scripts of emotions", e.g. jealousy, are handled and described. The power relations in the novels are also read, with reference to Michel Foucault. As the protagonists in two of them work as journalists, a critical discussion about media and Bourgeois hegemony is found; the term "repressive legitimation" is created to grasp these patterns of manipulation. The Modernist Debate , part II of the study, concerns a literary discussion between mainly Finland-Swedish authors and critics. Essayist Johannes Salminen (40) provided much of the fuel for the debate in 1963, questioning the relevance to contemporary life of the Finland-Swedish modernist tradition of the 1910 s and 1920 s. In 1965, a group of younger authors and critics, including poet Claes Andersson (28), followed up this critique in a debate taking place mainly in the newspaper Vasabladet. Poets Rabbe Enckell (62), Bo Carpelan (39) and others defended a timeless poetry. This debate is contextualized and the changing literary field is analyzed using concepts provided by sociologist Pierre Bourdieu. In the thesis, the historical moment of Middle Class radicalism with a human face is regarded a temporary luxury that new social groups could afford themselves, as long as they were knocking over the statues and symbols of the Old Bourgeoisie. This is not to say that all components of the Sixties strategy have lost their power. Some of them have survived and even grown, others remain latent in the gene bank of utopias, waiting for new moments of change.

Kognitiva system i namngivningen av finl��ndska handelsfartyg 1838-1938

This dissertation is an onomastic study of Finland s stock of ship names (nautonomasticon) recorded over the period 1838 1938. The primary material investigated consists of 2 066 examples of ship names from the fleets of coastal towns, distributed over five sample years. The material is supplemented with two bodies of comparative data; one that consists of 2 535 examples of boat names from the archipelago area at the corresponding time, and another that comprises 482 examples of eighteenth century Finnish ship names. This study clarifies the categories of names that appear the frequency of the names, formation, morphology, linguistic origin, functions, and semantic qualities. By comparing the material with boat names from previous centuries, and from other countries, the characteristics of Finnish vessel names are further highlighted. Additional clarification is brought to the chronological, regional, and social variations, and to the emergence of various forms of systematic naming. This dissertation builds on older research from other countries, and uses traditional onomastic methods alongside a more modern methodology. The approach is interdisciplinary, meaning that the names are explored using facts not only from nautical history, but also from a range of other historical disciplines such as economics, culture, art, and literature. In addition, the approach is socio-onomastic, i.e. that the variations in names are studied in a societal context. Using a synchronised perspective, cognitive linguistic theories have provided the tools for this exploration into the metaphorical and the prototypical meaning of the names, and the semantic domains that the names create. The quantitative analysis has revealed the overall picture of Finnish boat names. Personal names, names from mythology, and place names, emerge as significant categories, alongside nonproprial names in Swedish and Finnish. The interdisciplinary perspective has made it possible to explain certain trends in the stock of boat names, for example, the predisposition towards names from classical mythology, the breakthrough of names taken from the national epos Kalevala, names in the Finnish language from around the middle of the nineteenth century, and the continuing rise of place names during the latter part of the period 1838 1938. The socio-onomastic perspective has also identified clear differences between those ship names used in towns, and those ship names used in the archipelago, and it has clarified how naming conventions tend to spread from town centres to peripheral areas. The cognitive linguistic methods have revealed that the greater part of the vessel names can be interpreted as metaphors, in particular personifications, and that many names are related in their content and also form semantic networks and cognitive systems. The results indicate that there is a mental nautonomasticon that consists of a standard set of traditional ship names, but they also reveal the existence of conscious or unconscious cognitive systems (rules and conventions) that guide the naming of boats.

Phosphorus nutrition and tolerance of cotton to water stress I. Seed cotton yield and leaf morphology

Seed cotton yield and morphological changes in leaf growth were examined under drying soil with different phosphorus (P) concentrations in a tropical climate. Frequent soil drying is likely to induce a decrease in nutrients particularly P due to reduced diffusion and poor uptake, in addition to restrictions in available water, with strong interactive effects on plant growth and functioning. Increased soil P in field and in-ground soil core studies increased the seed cotton yield and related morphological growth parameters in a drying soil, with hot (daily maximum temperature >33��C) and dry conditions (relative humidity, 25% to 35%), particularly during peak boll formation and filling stage. The soil water content in the effective rooting zone (top 0.4 m) decreased to -1.5 MPa by day 5 of the soil drying cycle. However, the increased seed cotton yield for the high-P plants was closely related to increasing leaf area with increased P supply. Plant height, leaf fresh mass and leaf area per plant were positively related to the leaf P%, which increased with increasing P supply. Low P plants were lower in plant height, leaf area, and leaf tissue water in the drying soil. Individual leaf area and the water content of the fresh leaf (ratio of dry mass to fresh mass) were significantly dependent on leaf P%.

Anpassning i spr��kkontakt : Morfologisk och ortografisk anpassning av engelska l��nord i svenskan

The study investigates the formal integration of English loanwords into the Swedish language system. The aim has been to analyse and describe the morphological/morphosyntactic and the orthographical integration of the loanwords. I have studied how the foreign language elements get accommodated to Swedish and which factors are relevant in the integration. The material for the study consists of Swedish newspapers published in Sweden and Finland in paper format (with a focus on the years 1975 and 2000) and newspapers in digital format on the net. The theoretical frame for the study is contact linguistics. The study is based on a sociolinguistic, structural and language political perspective on what language is, and what language contact is. The method used is usage-based linguistic analysis. In the morphological study of the loanwords, I have made both a quantitative and a qualitative study. I have analysed the extent to which loanwords show some indication of integration in Swedish, and to what extent they show no signs of integration at all. I have also analysed integration in relation to word classes i.e., how nouns, adjectives and verbs integrate and which factors are relevant for the result of the integration. The result shows that most loanwords (36 %) do not show any signs of being formally integrated in Swedish. They undergo neither inflectional, nor derivational changes. One fifth of the loanwords are inflected according to the rules of Swedish grammar. Nouns are generally more often than verbs placed in positions in the sentence where no formal adaption is needed. Almost all of the verbs in the material are inflected according to Swedish rules of grammar. Only 3 % of the loanwords are inflected according to English rules or are placed in an ungrammatical position in the sentence. The orthographical study shows that English loanwords very seldom get adapted to Swedish orthography. Some English vowel and consonant graphemes are replaced with Swedish ones, for example a, ay and ai are replaced with aj or ej (mail ��� mejl). The study also indicates that morphological integration is related to orthographical integration: loanwords that are inflected according to Swedish grammar are more likely to be orthographical integrated than loanwords that are inflected according to English grammar. The results also shows that the integration of loanwords are affected by mostly language structural factors and language political factors.

Near infrared spectroscopy as a rapid tool to measure volatile aroma compounds in Riesling wine: Possibilities and limits

Volatile chemical compounds responsible for the aroma of wine are derived from a number of different biochemical and chemical pathways. These chemical compounds are formed during grape berry metabolism, crushing of the berries, fermentation processes (i.e. yeast and malolactic bacteria) and also from the ageing and storage of wine. Not surprisingly, there are a large number of chemical classes of compounds found in wine which are present at varying concentrations (ng L-1 to mg L-1), exhibit differing potencies, and have a broad range of volatilities and boiling points. The aim of this work was to investigate the potential use of near infrared (NIR) spectroscopy combined with chemometrics as a rapid and low-cost technique to measure volatile compounds in Riesling wines. Samples of commercial Riesling wine were analyzed using an NIR instrument and volatile compounds by gas chromatography (GC) coupled with selected ion monitoring mass spectrometry. Correlation between the NIR and GC data were developed using partial least-squares (PLS) regression with full cross validation (leave one out). Coefficients of determination in cross validation (R 2) and the standard error in cross validation (SECV) were 0.74 (SECV: 313.6 ��g L���1) for esters, 0.90 (SECV: 20.9 ��g L���1) for monoterpenes and 0.80 (SECV: 1658 ?g L-1) for short-chain fatty acids. This study has shown that volatile chemical compounds present in wine can be measured by NIR spectroscopy. Further development with larger data sets will be required to test the predictive ability of the NIR calibration models developed.

Lag��vers��ttning som process och produkt : Revideringar och institutioner vid lag��vers��ttning till svenska i Finland

The thesis studies the translation process for the laws of Finland as they are translated from Finnish into Swedish. The focus is on revision practices, norms and workplace procedures. The translation process studied covers three institutions and four revisions. In three separate studies the translation process is analyzed from the perspective of the translations, the institutions and the actors. The general theoretical framework is Descriptive Translation Studies. For the analysis of revisions made in versions of the Swedish translation of Finnish laws, a model is developed covering five grammatical categories (textual revisions, syntactic revisions, lexical revisions, morphological revisions and content revisions) and four norms (legal adequacy, correct translation, correct language and readability). A separate questionnaire-based study was carried out with translators and revisers at the three institutions. The results show that the number of revisions does not decrease during the translation process, and no division of labour can be seen at the different stages. This is somewhat surprising if the revision process is regarded as one of quality control. Instead, all revisers make revisions on every level of the text. Further, the revisions do not necessarily imply errors in the translations but are often the result of revisers following different norms for legal translation. The informal structure of the institutions and its impact on communication, visibility and workplace practices was studied from the perspective of organization theory. The results show weaknesses in the communicative situation, which affect the co-operation both between institutions and individuals. Individual attitudes towards norms and their relative authority also vary, in the sense that revisers largely prioritize legal adequacy whereas translators give linguistic norms a higher value. Further, multi-professional teamwork in the institutions studied shows a kind of teamwork based on individuals and institutions doing specific tasks with only little contact with others. This shows that the established definitions of teamwork, with people co-working in close contact with each other, cannot directly be applied to the workplace procedures in the translation process studied. Three new concepts are introduced: flerstegsrevidering (multi-stage revision), revideringskedja (revision chain) and normsyn (norm attitude). The study seeks to make a contribution to our knowledge of legal translation, translation processes, institutional translation, revision practices and translation norms for legal translation. Keywords: legal translation, translation of laws, institutional translation, revision, revision practices, norms, teamwork, organizational informal structure, translation process, translation sociology, multilingual.

Konstruktioner och valens : Verbfraser med ��t i ett j��mf��rande perspektiv

Det har knappast undg��tt n��gon som ��r spr��kligt medveten att finlandssvenskan och sverigesvenskan skiljer sig ��t till vissa delar. Olikheterna ��terfinns p�� olika spr��kliga niv��er. Mest k��nda och omskrivna ��r de lexikologiska skillnaderna, dvs. skillnaderna p�� ordplanet. Betydligt mindre uppm��rksamhet har ��gnats syntaktiska skillnader, dvs. skillnader i hur satser och meningar byggs upp. F��r att ��ka kunskapen om finlandssvensk syntax initierade Spr��kvetenskapliga n��mnden vid Svenska litteraturs��llskapet i Finland projektet Svenskan i Finland ��� syntaktiska drag i ett j��mf��rande perspektiv, som p��gick ��ren 2004���2006. Min avhandling har kommit till inom ramen f��r det projektet. Prepositionerna (t.ex. av, i, p��, f��r, till, ��t osv.) ��r s�� kallade funktionsord som har till uppgift att binda samman de mer betydelsetunga orden till satser och meningar. Den finlandssvenska prepositionsanv��ndningen skiljer sig i viss m��n fr��n den sverigesvenska, och �����t��� ��r en av de prepositioner som ofta lyfts fram som exempel. Finlandssvenskarna s��ger t.ex. ���han gav en bok ��t Lena��� i st��llet f��r ���han gav en bok till Lena��� eller ���han gav Lena en bok���. De s��ger ���ber��tta n��got ��t n��gon��� (i st��llet f��r ���f��r���) och de s��ger ���ringa ��t n��gon��� i st��llet f��r ���ringa n��gon���. Ett huvudsyfte med min unders��kning ��r att ta reda p�� hur pass stora skillnaderna ��r om man ser till samtliga bel��gg p�� �����t��� i ett material och inte bara till s��dana som man f��ster sig vid f��r att man vet att de avviker i finlandssvenskan. Unders��kningen ��r korpusbaserad. Det betyder att jag letat efter alla bel��gg p�� kombinationer av verb och prepositionen �����t��� i r��tt stora textmassor som finns tillg��ngliga i elektronisk form. Materialet ligger i Spr��kbanken i Finland och omfattar huvudsakligen tidningstext och sk��nlitteratur. Jag har anv��nt mig av en textmassa p�� sammanlagt ungef��r 40 miljoner l��pande ord, drygt 23 miljoner finlandssvenska och drygt 19 miljoner sverigesvenska. Det materialet gav ca 20 000 ��t-bel��gg att studera, och det visade sig n��got ov��ntat att �����t��� inte alls ��r vanligare i finlandssvenskan ��n i sverigesvenskan n��r det g��ller skriftspr��k, ��tminstone inte i professionella skribenters spr��k. Om man kompenserar f��r att den finlandssvenska och den sverigesvenska korpusen inte ��r helt lika i fr��ga om genref��rdelning och ��lder, kommer man fram till i stort sett samma frekvens f��r �����t��� i b��da korpusarna. F��r den n��rmare analysen av vilka m��nster ��t-bel��ggen uppvisar har jag f��rst och fr��mst utnyttjat konstruktionsgrammatik men ocks�� ramsemantik och valensteori. Konstruktionsgrammatiken ��r ingen enhetlig teori, men tanken om grammatiska konstruktioner ��r gemensam. Konstruktioner representerar allt fr��n generella syntaktiska m��nster till specifika m��nster f��r spr��kliga enskildheter. Uppfattningen om vad som ska inbegripas i begreppet varierar, men definitionen av ���konstruktion��� som ���par (eller konstellationer) av form och betydelse��� ��r gemensam. ���Konstruktion��� avser aldrig konkreta bel��gg i texter eller yttranden utan alltid det abstrakta m��nstret bakom dessa. Och varje yttrande ��r resultatet av att en stor m��ngd konstruktioner samverkar. I min analys har jag utg��tt ifr��n att bel��ggen med �����t��� kan ��terf��ras p�� olika konstruktioner eller m��nster utifr��n vad som ��r gemensamt f��r grupper av bel��gg. Jag har sett p�� vad ��t-frasen i samverkan med verbet har f��r funktion i bel��ggen. En ��t-fras ��r syntaktiskt en prepositionsfras och best��r av en preposition och en rektion. Exempelvis utg��r ordparet �����t skogen��� en prepositionsfras d��r ���skogen��� ��r rektion. Ur mitt material har jag kunnat abstrahera fram fem ��vergripande m��nster d��r referenten f��r rektionen har olika s�� kallade semantiska roller. ��t-frasen kan i kombination med verbet ange m��l eller riktm��rke, som i t.ex. sv��nga ��t h��ger, dra ��t helvete, ta sig ��t hj��rtat, luta ��t en seger f��r IFK. Den kan f��r det andra ange mottagare (t.ex. ge varsin kaka ��t hundarna, bygga en bastu ��t sina sv��rf��r��ldrar, skaffa biljetter ��t en kompis). F��r det tredje kan ��t-frasen avse en referent som har nytta (eller skada) av en aktion (t.ex. klippa h��cken ��t grannen, st��lla in digitalboxen ��t sin moster). ��t-frasen kan slutligen avse den eller det som ��r f��rem��l antingen f��r en kommunikationsaktion (vinka ��t sin son, skratta ��t el��ndet) eller en attityd eller k��nsla (gl��dja sig ��t framg��ngen). Ut��ver dessa huvudm��nster finns det ett antal sm��rre grupper av bel��gg som bildar egna m��nster, men de utg��r sammanlagt under 3 % i b��gge korpusarna. Inom grupperna kan underm��nster urskiljas. I t.ex. mottagargruppen representerar ���ge varsin kaka ��t hundarna��� ��verf��ringskonstruktion, ���bygga en bastu ��t sina sv��rf��r��ldrar��� produktionskonstruktion och ���skaffa biljetter ��t en kompis��� ombes��rjningskonstruktion. Alla typer ��r gemensamma f��r b��gge materialen, men andelen bel��gg som representerar de olika typerna skiljer sig betydligt. I det sverigesvenska materialet st��r t.ex. det m��nster d��r ��t-frasen avser m��l eller riktm��rke f��r en mycket st��rre andel av bel��ggen ��n i finlandssvenskan. Ocks�� andelen bel��gg d��r ��t-frasen avser n��gon som har nytta (eller skada) av en aktion ��r mycket h��gre i det sverigesvenska materialet. I det finlandssvenska materialet st��r i geng��ld mottagarbel��ggen f��r ��ver 50 % av bel��ggen medan andelen i det sverigesvenska materialet ��r bara 30 %. Inom gruppen utg��r bel��gg av produktions- och ombes��rjningstyp dessutom en mindre andel i det finlandssvenska materialet ��n i det sverigesvenska. Dessa st��r till sin funktion n��ra den typ som avser den som har nytta av aktionen. De konkreta bel��ggen p�� ��verf��ring (ge varsin kaka ��t hundarna) utg��r en st��rre andel i det finlandssvenska materialet ��n i det sverigesvenska (ca 8 % mot 3 %), men typiskt f��r b��da materialen ��r h��g kollokationsgrad (���kollokation��� avser par eller grupper av ord som upptr��der oftare tillsammans ��n de statiskt sett skulle g��ra vid helt slumpm��ssig f��rekomst). St��rsta delen av mottagarbel��ggen utg��rs av fraser av typen ���ge arbete ��t n��gon, ge eftertryck ��t n��got, ge liv ��t n��got; ��gna tid ��t n��got, ��gna sitt liv ��t n��got, ��gna uppm��rksamhet ��t n��got���. De h��r slutsatserna g��ller allts�� skriftspr��k. I talspr��k ser f��rdelningen annorlunda ut. Typiskt f��r prepositionen �����t��� ��r ��verhuvudtaget h��g kollokationsgrad. Det f��refaller som om spr��kanv��ndarna har tydliga, f��rdiga mallar f��r var �����t��� kan komma in. Det enda m��nster som verkar helt produktivt, i den meningen att elementen ��r i stort sett fritt kombinerbara, ��r kombinationer av verb och ��t-fras d��r ��t-frasen avser den som har nytta av n��got. Att n��gon utf��r n��got f��r n��gons r��kning verkar ��verlag kunna uttryckas med prepositionen �����t���: t.ex. ���tv��tta bilen ��t pappa, ringa efter en taxi ��t kunden���. Till och med bel��gg av typen ���hon dr��mde ��t honom att bli ordinarie adjunkt��� f��rekommer i n��gon m��n. Konstruktionen ��r produktiv i b��da spr��kvarieteterna men uppenbart ��r att konstruktion med mottagare har tolkningsf��retr��de i vissa fall i finlandssvenskan: ���Filip skrev ett brev ��t sin syster��� tolkas av sverigesvenskar som att Filip skrev brevet f��r systerns r��kning, medan finlandssvenskar ��verlag uppenbarligen tolkar det som att Filip skrev till sin syster, att systern var mottagare av brevet. Ungef��r 20 % av alla bel��gg i b��da materialen representerar fall d��r �����t��� utg��r partikel. Verb och �����t��� ��r n��rmare f��rbundna med varandra ��n n��r �����t��� utg��r normal preposition. Exempel p�� partikelbel��gg ��r ���han kom inte ��t str��mbrytaren, det gick ��t m��ngder med saft, landet f��r dra ��t sv��ngremmen, de roffade ��t sig de b��sta platserna���. Ocks�� partikelmaterialet ser p�� ett generellt plan v��ldigt lika ut i b��da spr��kvarieteterna. Den st��rsta skillnaden uppvisar den reflexiva typen ���roffa ��t sig���. Medan typen ��r mycket homogen i det sverigesvenska materialet ��r variationen st��rre i det finlandsvenska. Dels upptr��der fler verb i kombinationen (han k��pte ��t sig ett par jeans), dels vacklar ordf��ljden (han nappade ��t sig ett paraply ~ han nappade ett paraply ��t sig). Att �����t��� anv��nds mer i vissa funktioner i finlandsvenskan brukar f��rklaras med p��verkan fr��n finskans allativ (��ndelsen -lle: h��n antoi kirjan Astalle > hon gav en bok ��t Asta). Allt tyder dock p�� att den finlandssvenska ��t-anv��ndningen delvis ��r en relikt. I ��ldre sverigesvenska k��llor tr��ffar man p�� �����t��� i s��dana kontexter som numera ��r typiska f��r finlandsvenskan. Det finlandssvenska spr��komr��det ligger ute i periferin i relation till det spr��kliga centrum som f��r��ndringar sprider sig fr��n (f��r svenskans del fr��mst Stockholmstrakten) och typiskt f��r perifera omr��den ��r att de uppvisar ��lderdomliga drag ocks�� n��r inga kontaktfenomen spelar in. Allativen kan naturligtvis ha bidragit till att bevara anv��ndningen av �����t��� i finlandssvenskan. Att det ��r just �����t��� som anv��nds��� beror antagligen p�� att prepositionen har flest funktioner gemensamt med allativen rent kognitivt om man j��mf��r med de betydligt mer frekventa prepositionerna ���till��� och ���f��r���. Uppenbart ��r ocks�� att ��t-anv��ndningen d��rtill lever sitt eget liv i finlandssvenskan. I vissa varieteter av finlandssvenska kan man t.ex. h��ra yttranden av typ ���alla fiskarna dog ��t dom���. Som spr��klig enskildhet har det ingen finsk f��rebild med allativ. Yttrandet ��r ett exempel p�� t��jning av en svensk konstruktion. Modell finns dels i det m��nster d��r ��t avser den som har nytta eller skada av n��got, dels i relationell anv��ndning av �����t���: han ��r hantlangare ��t Eriksson ~ han ��r Erikssons hantlangare. Vid spr��kkontakt ��r det ��verlag konstruktioner som har f��rebild i det l��ntagande spr��ket som l��nas in fr��n det l��ngivande spr��ket, medan konstruktioner som saknar f��rebild ��r betydligt mindre ben��gna att vinna insteg.

Konstruktioner i interaktion. : de e som resurs i samtal

This study concerns the most common word pair in spoken Swedish, de e (it is, third person pronoun + copula-verb in present tense). The aim of the study is twofold, with an empirical aim and a theoretical aim. The empirical aim is to investigate if and how the string de e can be understood and described as a construction in its own right with characteristics that distinguishes it from other structures and resources in spoken Swedish. The theoretical aim is to test how two different linguistic theories and methods, interactional linguistics and construction grammar, can be combined and used to describe and explain patterns in languaging that traditional grammar does take into account. The empirical analysis is done within the interactional linguistic framework with sequence analyses of excerpts from authentic conversation data. The data consists of approximately ten hours of recorded conversation from Finland and Sweden. The sequence analysis suggests that the string de e really is used as a resource in its own right. In most cases, the string is also used in ways consistent with abstract grammatical patterns described by traditional grammar. Nevertheless, there are instances where de e is used in ways not described before: with numerals and infinitive phrases as complements, without any complements at all and together with certain complements (bra, de) in idiomatic ways. Furthermore, in the instances where de e is used according to known grammatical patterns the function of the particular string de e is clearly contextually specific and in various ways linked to the micro-context in which it is used. A new model is suggested for understanding and concluding the results from the sequence analyses. It consists of two different types of constructions grammatical and interactional. The grammatical constructions show how the string is used in eleven structurally different ways. The interactional constructions show seven different sequential positions and functions in which the string occurs. The two types of constructions are also linked to each other as potentials. This is a new way to describe how interactants use and responds to a concrete string like de e in conversation.

Fluctuation phenomena in electrochemistry part I. The formalism

A unified approach to the problem of electrochemical fluctuations is presented. On the basis of the Langevin procedure, primary noise sources are introduced in the basic phenomenological equations and a discussion of the secondary noise sources arising in the expressions for the power spectra of currents is given.