The contribution of psychosocial factors to socioeconomic differences in food purchasing

In developed countries the relationship between socioeconomic position (SEP) and health is unequivocal. Those who are socioeconomically disadvantaged are known to experience higher morbidity and mortality from a range of chronic diet-related conditions compared to those of higher SEP. Socioeconomic inequalities in diet are well established. Compared to their more advantaged counterparts, those of low SEP are consistently found to consume diets less consistent with dietary guidelines (i.e. higher in fat, salt and sugar and lower in fibre, fruit and vegetables). Although the reasons for dietary inequalities remain unclear, understanding how such differences arise is important for the development of strategies to reduce health inequalities. Both environmental (e.g. proximity of supermarkets, price, and availability of foods) and psychosocial (e.g. taste preference, nutrition knowledge) influences are proposed to account for inequalities in food choices. Although in the United States (US), United Kingdom (UK), and parts of Australia, environmental factors are associated with socioeconomic differences in food choices, these factors do not completely account for the observed inequalities. Internationally, this context has prompted calls for further exploration of the role of psychological and social factors in relation to inequalities in food choices. It is this task that forms the primary goal of this PhD research. In the small body of research examining the contribution of psychosocial factors to inequalities in food choices, studies have focussed on food cost concerns, nutrition knowledge or health concerns. These factors are generally found to be influential. However, since a range of psychosocial factors are known determinants of food choices in the general population, it is likely that a range of factors also contribute to inequalities in food choices. Identification of additional psychosocial factors of relevance to inequalities in food choices would provide new opportunities for health promotion, including the adaption of existing strategies. The methodological features of previous research have also hindered the advancement of knowledge in this area and a lack of qualitative studies has resulted in a dearth of descriptive information on this topic. This PhD investigation extends previous research by assessing a range of psychosocial factors in relation to inequalities in food choices using both quantitative and qualitative techniques. Secondary data analyses were undertaken using data obtained from two Brisbane-based studies, the Brisbane Food Study (N=1003, conducted in 2000), and the Sixty Families Study (N=60, conducted in 1998). Both studies involved main household food purchasers completing an interviewer-administered survey within their own home. Data pertaining to food-purchasing, and psychosocial, socioeconomic and demographic characteristics were collected in each study. The mutual goals of both the qualitative and quantitative phases of this investigation were to assess socioeconomic differences in food purchasing and to identify psychosocial factors relevant to any observed differences. The quantitative methods then additionally considered whether the associations examined differed according to the socioeconomic indicator used (i.e. income or education). The qualitative analyses made a unique contribution to this project by generating detailed descriptions of socioeconomic differences in psychosocial factors. Those with lower levels of income and education were found to make food purchasing choices less consistent with dietary guidelines compared to those of high SEP. The psychosocial factors identified as relevant to food-purchasing inequalities were: taste preferences, health concerns, health beliefs, nutrition knowledge, nutrition concerns, weight concerns, nutrition label use, and several other values and beliefs unique to particular socioeconomic groups. Factors more tenuously or inconsistently related to socioeconomic differences in food purchasing were cost concerns, and perceived adequacy of the family diet. Evidence was displayed in both the quantitative and qualitative analyses to suggest that psychosocial factors contribute to inequalities in food purchasing in a collective manner. The quantitative analyses revealed that considerable overlap in the socioeconomic variation in food purchasing was accounted for by key psychosocial factors of importance, including taste preference, nutrition concerns, nutrition knowledge, and health concerns. Consistent with these findings, the qualitative transcripts demonstrated the interplay between such influential psychosocial factors in determining food-purchasing choices. The qualitative analyses found socioeconomic differences in the prioritisation of psychosocial factors in relation to food choices. This is suggestive of complex cultural factors that distinguish advantaged and disadvantaged groups and result in socioeconomically distinct schemas related to health and food choices. Compared to those of high SEP, those of lower SEP were less likely to indicate that health concerns, nutrition concerns, or food labels influenced food choices, and exhibited lower levels of nutrition knowledge. In the absence of health or nutrition-related concerns, taste preferences tended to dominate the food purchasing choices of those of low SEP. Overall, while cost concerns did not appear to be a main determinant of socioeconomic differences in food purchasing, this factor had a dominant influence on the food choices of some of the most disadvantaged respondents included in this research. The findings of this study have several implications for health promotion. The integrated operation of psychosocial factors on food purchasing inequalities indicates that multiple psychosocial factors may be appropriate to target in health promotion. It also seems possible that the inter-relatedness of psychosocial factors would allow health promotion targeting a single psychosocial factor to have a flow-on affect in terms of altering other influential psychosocial factors. This research also suggests that current mass marketing approaches to health promotion may not be effective across all socioeconomic groups due to differences in the priorities and main factors of influence in food purchasing decisions across groups. In addition to the practical recommendations for health promotion, this investigation, through the critique of previous research, and through the substantive study findings, has highlighted important methodological considerations for future research. Of particular note are the recommendations pertaining to the selection of socioeconomic indicators, measurement of relevant constructs, consideration of confounders, and development of an analytical approach. Addressing inequalities in health has been noted as a main objective by many health authorities and governments internationally. It is envisaged that the substantive and methodological findings of this thesis will make a useful contribution towards this important goal.

Targeted control of feral pigs in far north Queensland : defining management units using molecular techniques

The feral pig, Sus scrofa, is a widespread and abundant invasive species in Australia. Feral pigs pose a significant threat to the environment, agricultural industry, and human health, and in far north Queensland they endanger World Heritage values of the Wet Tropics. Historical records document the first introduction of domestic pigs into Australia via European settlers in 1788 and subsequent introductions from Asia from 1827 onwards. Since this time, domestic pigs have been accidentally and deliberately released into the wild and significant feral pig populations have become established, resulting in the declaration of this species as a class 2 pest in Queensland. The overall objective of this study was to assess the population genetic structure of feral pigs in far north Queensland, in particular to enable delineation of demographically independent management units. The identification of ecologically meaningful management units using molecular techniques can assist in targeting feral pig control to bring about effective long-term management. Molecular genetic analysis was undertaken on 434 feral pigs from 35 localities between Tully and Innisfail. Seven polymorphic and unlinked microsatellite loci were screened and fixation indices (FST and analogues) and Bayesian clustering methods were used to identify population structure and management units in the study area. Sequencing of the hyper-variable mitochondrial control region (D-loop) of 35 feral pigs was also examined to identify pig ancestry. Three management units were identified in the study at a scale of 25 to 35 km. Even with the strong pattern of genetic structure identified in the study area, some evidence of long distance dispersal and/or translocation was found as a small number of individuals exhibited ancestry from a management unit outside of which they were sampled. Overall, gene flow in the study area was found to be influenced by environmental features such as topography and land use, but no distinct or obvious natural or anthropogenic geographic barriers were identified. Furthermore, strong evidence was found for non-random mating between pigs of European and Asian breeds indicating that feral pig ancestry influences their population genetic structure. Phylogenetic analysis revealed two distinct mitochondrial DNA clades, representing Asian domestic pig breeds and European breeds. A significant finding was that pigs of Asian origin living in Innisfail and south Tully were not mating randomly with European breed pigs populating the nearby Mission Beach area. Feral pig control should be implemented in each of the management units identified in this study. The control should be coordinated across properties within each management unit to prevent re-colonisation from adjacent localities. The adjacent rainforest and National Park Estates, as well as the rainforest-crop boundary should be included in a simultaneous control operation for greater success.

The ancient gene C12orf29 : an exploration of its role in the chordate body plan

The sheep (Ovis aries) is commonly used as a large animal model in skeletal research. Although the sheep genome has been sequenced there are still only a limited number of annotated mRNA sequences in public databases. A complementary DNA (cDNA) library was constructed to provide a generic resource for further exploration of genes that are actively expressed in bone cells in sheep. It was anticipated that the cDNA library would provide molecular tools for further research into the process of fracture repair and bone homeostasis, and add to the existing body of knowledge. One of the hallmarks of cDNA libraries has been the identification of novel genes and in this library the full open reading frame of the gene C12orf29 was cloned and characterised. This gene codes for a protein of unknown function with a molecular weight of 37 kDa. A literature search showed that no previous studies had been conducted into the biological role of C12orf29, except for some bioinformatics studies that suggested a possible link with cancer. Phylogenetic analyses revealed that C12orf29 had an ancient pedigree with a homologous gene found in some bacterial taxa. This implied that the gene was present in the last common eukaryotic ancestor, thought to have existed more than 2 billion years ago. This notion was further supported by the fact that the gene is found in taxa belonging to the two major eukaryotic branches, bikonts and unikonts. In the bikont supergroup a C12orf29-like gene was found in the single celled protist Naegleria gruberi, whereas in the unikont supergroup, encompassing the metazoa, the gene is universal to all chordate and, therefore, vertebrate species. It appears to have been lost to the majority of cnidaria and protostomes taxa; however, C12orf29-like genes have been found in the cnidarian freshwater hydra and the protostome Pacific oyster. The experimental data indicate that C12orf29 has a structural role in skeletal development and tissue homeostasis, whereas in silico analysis of the human C12orf29 promoter region suggests that its expression is potentially under the control of the NOTCH, WNT and TGF- developmental pathways, as well SOX9 and BAPX1; pathways that are all heavily involved in skeletogenesis. Taken together, this investigation provides strong evidence that C12orf29 has a very important role in the chordate body plan, in early skeletal development, cartilage homeostasis, and also a possible link with spina bifida in humans.

Molecular characterisation and expression analysis of interferon gamma in response to natural chlamydia infection in the koala, phascolarctos cinereus

Interferon gamma (IFNγ) is a key Th1 cytokine, with a principal role in the immune response against intracellular organisms such as Chlamydia. Along with being responsible for significant morbidity in human populations, Chlamydia is also responsible for wide spread infection and disease in many animal hosts, with reports that many Australian koala subpopulations are endemically infected. An understanding of the role played by IFNγ in koala chlamydial diseases is important for the establishment of better prophylactic and therapeutic approaches against chlamydial infection in this host. A limited number of IFNγ sequences have been published from marsupials and no immune reagents to measure expression have been developed. Through preliminary analysis of the koala transcriptome, we have identified the full coding sequence of the koala IFNγ gene. Transcripts were identified in spleen and lymph node tissue samples. Phylogenetic analysis demonstrated that koala IFNγ is closely related to other marsupial IFNγ sequences and more distantly related to eutherian mammals. To begin to characterise the role of this important cytokine in the koala's response to chlamydial infection, we developed a quantitative real time PCR assay and applied it to a small cohort of koalas with and without active chlamydial disease, revealing significant differences in expression patterns between the groups. Description of the IFNγ sequence from the koala will not only assist in understanding this species' response to its most important pathogen but will also provide further insight into the evolution of the marsupial immune system

Time and space in biogeography : response to Parenti & Ebach (2013)

A recent Guest Editorial by Parenti & Ebach (2013, Journal of Biogeography, 40, 813–820) disagrees with the methods or interpretations in two of our recent papers. In addition, the authors open a debate on biogeographical concepts, and present an alternative philosophy for biogeographical research in the context of their recently described biogeographical subregion called ‘Pandora’. We disagree with their approach and conclusions, and comment on several issues related to our differing conceptual approaches for biogeographical research; namely, our use of molecular phylogenetic analyses, including time estimates; and Parenti & Ebach's reliance on taxon/general area cladograms. Finally, we re-examine their ‘tests’ supporting the existence of ‘Pandora’.

Utility of COI, CAD and morphological data for resolving relationships within the genus Sarcophaga (sensu lato) (Diptera: Sarcophagidae) : a preliminary study

Currently there are ~3000 known species of Sarcophagidae (Diptera), which are classified into 173 genera in three subfamilies. Almost 25% of sarcophagids belong to the genus Sarcophaga (sensu lato) however little is known about the validity of, and relationships between the ~150 (or more) subgenera of Sarcophaga s.l. In this preliminary study, we evaluated the usefulness of three sources of data for resolving relationships between 35 species from 14 Sarcophaga s.l. subgenera: the mitochondrial COI barcode region, ~800. bp of the nuclear gene CAD, and 110 morphological characters. Bayesian, maximum likelihood (ML) and maximum parsimony (MP) analyses were performed on the combined dataset. Much of the tree was only supported by the Bayesian and ML analyses, with the MP tree poorly resolved. The genus Sarcophaga s.l. was resolved as monophyletic in both the Bayesian and ML analyses and strong support was obtained at the species-level. Notably, the only subgenus consistently resolved as monophyletic was Liopygia. The monophyly of and relationships between the remaining Sarcophaga s.l. subgenera sampled remain questionable. We suggest that future phylogenetic studies on the genus Sarcophaga s.l. use combined datasets for analyses. We also advocate the use of additional data and a range of inference strategies to assist with resolving relationships within Sarcophaga s.l.

Genomic evidence for the parallel evolution of coastal forms in the Senecio lautus complex

Instances of parallel ecotypic divergence where adaptation to similar conditions repeatedly cause similar phenotypic changes in closely related organisms are useful for studying the role of ecological selection in speciation. Here we used a combination of traditional and next generation genotyping techniques to test for the parallel divergence of plants from the Senecio lautus complex, a phenotypically variable groundsel that has adapted to disparate environments in the South Pacific. Phylogenetic analysis of a broad selection of Senecio species showed that members of the S. lautus complex form a distinct lineage that has diversified recently in Australasia. An inspection of thousands of polymorphisms in the genome of 27 natural populations from the S. lautus complex in Australia revealed a signal of strong genetic structure independent of habitat and phenotype. Additionally, genetic differentiation between populations was correlated with the geographical distance separating them, and the genetic diversity of populations strongly depended on geographical location. Importantly, coastal forms appeared in several independent phylogenetic clades, a pattern that is consistent with the parallel evolution of these forms. Analyses of the patterns of genomic differentiation between populations further revealed that adjacent populations displayed greater genomic heterogeneity than allopatric populations and are differentiated according to variation in soil composition. These results are consistent with a process of parallel ecotypic divergence in face of gene flow.

The evolution and biogeography of the austral horse fly tribe Scionini (Diptera: Tabanidae: Pangoniinae) inferred from multiple mitochondrial and nuclear genes

Phylogenetic relationships within the Tabanidae are largely unknown, despite their considerable medical and ecological importance. The first robust phylogenetic hypothesis for the horse fly tribe Scionini is provided, completing the systematic placement of all tribes in the subfamily Pangoniinae. The Scionini consists of seven mostly southern hemisphere genera distributed in Australia, New Guinea, New Zealand and South America. A 5757. bp alignment of 6 genes, including mitochondrial (COI and COII), ribosomal (28S) and nuclear (AATS and CAD regions 1, 3 and 4) genes, was analysed for 176 taxa using both Bayesian and maximum likelihood approaches. Results indicate the Scionini are strongly monophyletic, with the exclusion of the only northern hemisphere genus Goniops. The South American genera Fidena, Pityocera and Scione were strongly monophyletic, corresponding to current morphology-based classification schemes. The most widespread genus Scaptia was paraphyletic and formed nine strongly supported monophyletic clades, each corresponding to either the current subgenera or several previously synonymised genera that should be formally resurrected. Molecular results also reveal a newly recognised genus endemic to New Zealand, formerly placed within Scaptia. Divergence time estimation was employed to assess the global biogeographical patterns in the Pangoniinae. These analyses demonstrated that the Scionini are a typical Gondwanan group whose diversification was influenced by the fragmentation of that ancient land mass. Furthermore, results indicate that the Scionini most likely originated in Australia and subsequently radiated to New Zealand and South American by both long distance dispersal and vicariance. The phylogenetic framework of the Scionini provided herein will be valuable for taxonomic revisions of the Tabanidae.

Complete mitochondrial genome sequencing reveals novel haplotypes in a Polynesian population

The high risk of metabolic disease traits in Polynesians may be partly explained by elevated prevalence of genetic variants involved in energy metabolism. The genetics of Polynesian populations has been shaped by island hoping migration events which have possibly favoured thrifty genes. The aim of this study was to sequence the mitochondrial genome in a group of Maoris in an effort to characterise genome variation in this Polynesian population for use in future disease association studies. We sequenced the complete mitochondrial genomes of 20 non-admixed Maori subjects using Affymetrix technology. DNA diversity analyses showed the Maori group exhibited reduced mitochondrial genome diversity compared to other worldwide populations, which is consistent with historical bottleneck and founder effects. Global phylogenetic analysis positioned these Maori subjects specifically within mitochondrial haplogroup - B4a1a1. Interestingly, we identified several novel variants that collectively form new and unique Maori motifs – B4a1a1c, B4a1a1a3 and B4a1a1a5. Compared to ancestral populations we observed an increased frequency of non-synonymous coding variants of several mitochondrial genes in the Maori group, which may be a result of positive selection and/or genetic drift effects. In conclusion, this study reports the first complete mitochondrial genome sequence data for a Maori population. Overall, these new data reveal novel mitochondrial genome signatures in this Polynesian population and enhance the phylogenetic picture of maternal ancestry in Oceania. The increased frequency of several mitochondrial coding variants makes them good candidates for future studies aimed at assessment of metabolic disease risk in Polynesian populations.

Characterisation of candidate nuclear genes for species delineation in the genus Cherax

Understanding the evolutionary history and phylogenetic relationships between rare and common species is necessary for the effective management of rare species. The genus Cherax, a group of freshwater crayfish species, is of interest in this regard as a number of species are rare or have restricted distributions while other species are common and widespread. Here we describe the characterisation of three novel nuclear genes of the haemocyanin superfamily for phylogenetic reconstruction of the genus. All novel markers developed in this study amplified consistently in species from three divergent clades of the genus Cherax. The level of polymorphism found in these markers was consistently higher than that found in other nuclear genes previously used in invertebrate systematics, such as NaK ATP-ase. In combination, these markers will be useful to delineate phylogenetic relationships between rare and common Cherax species.

Positively playful : when videogames lead to player wellbeing

Videogames are an increasingly popular entertainment choice, yet we have a limited understanding of their potential wellbeing benefits. The current research used an online survey (N = 429) to investigate how gameplay choices and the psychological experience of gameplay impact on player wellbeing. Specifically, a hierarchical multiple regression was conducted to determine if, controlling for age and gender, current gameplay choices (amount of play, game genre, mode of play) and play experience (flow, psychological need satisfaction) predicted current wellbeing. Results indicated that age, social play, relatedness during gameplay and flow were positively associated with player wellbeing. Implications for our understanding of player wellbeing, as well as directions for future research are discussed.

Why is there no genetics in phylogenetics : misconceptions, clarification and solutions

Fundamental misconceptions regarding some basic phylogenetic terminology are presented in this opinion piece. An attempt is made to point out why these misconceptions exist and what may be causing the misapplication of terminology. Clarification is providing via basic definitions and simple explanations. Differences between the scientific fields of genetics and population genetics are discussed. The appropriate use of terminology is advocated and alternative terms are proposed to eliminate one potential source of confusion. It is suggested we use 'sequence data' instead of molecular data and 'non-sequence data' instead of morphological data in the field of phylogenetics and systematics.

Activity, motivation and games for young children

The research described in this paper examines the extent to which very young children were able to use the Stomp platform (a floor-based gaming system designed to provide new, active participatory experiences) to engage in game play. We are interested in how children's engagement in different activities within the game world influences their motivation to play games. We map activity to motivational needs of competence, autonomy and relatedness. A detailed examination of two Stomp experiences demonstrates how this type of analysis is useful in identifying the strengths and weaknesses of the games for this audience.

Towards an operational understanding of wellness

Despite the increased focus on wellness and wellness programs there is still no consensus as to what wellness is. This is in part because programs do not define wellness and in part because studies and programs employ vastly different outcome measures that arguably reflect other constructs such as health, well-being, and quality of life. In this paper, we suggest an operational understanding of wellness and show how wellness differs from health, quality of life and well-being. Academic literature on the subject of health, wellness, well-being and quality of life reveals confusion, as theorists and researchers frequently describe each of these constructs in a very similar manner. We argue that elements such as the context and target population in which the term wellness is used are critical for our understanding of the construct. While it is inevitable that cross-over exists between similar constructs, wellness does have distinctly identifiable features. These include: being both holistic and multidimensional, being focused on lifestyle behaviours, being about actions or processes, recognising the inter-relatedness between person and environment, and being unique by way of goal and context.

Overview of complex systems in sport

The complex systems approach offers an opportunity to replace the extant pre-dominant mechanistic view on sport-related phenomena. The emphasis on the environment-system relationship, the applications of complexity principles, and the use of nonlinear dynamics mathematical tools propose a deep change in sport science. Coordination dynamics, ecological dynamics, and network approaches have been successfully applied to the study of different sport-related behaviors, from movement patterns that emerge at different scales constrained by specific sport contexts to game dynamics. Sport benefit from the use of such approaches in the understanding of technical, tactical, or physical conditioning aspects which change their meaning and dilute their frontiers. The creation of new learning and training strategies for teams and individual athletes is a main practical consequence. Some challenges for the future are investigating the influence of key control parameters in the nonlinear behavior of athlete-environment systems and the possible relatedness of the dynamics and constraints acting at different spatio-temporal scales in team sports. Modelling sport-related phenomena can make useful contributions to a better understanding of complex systems and vice-versa.