Nature et impacts juridiques de la certification dans le commerce électronique sur Internet

Le sujet sur lequel porte la présente étude est inspiré de la problématique à la base du développement du commerce électronique : la confiance. En effet, l’accroissement exponentiel du nombre d’internautes et des sites Web commerciaux pose un sérieux problème à ce niveau. Ces sites présentent au public une information et des services divers, mais peu vérifiables. Ainsi, le principal obstacle au développement du commerce électronique avec les particuliers est le manque de confiance qu’inspirent les lieux visités. En effet, comment savoir si l’entreprise existe, quelles sont ses politiques concernant la sécurité ou la gestion des renseignements personnels, etc. La vérification et la certification des sites apparaissent comme une solution de plus en plus attrayante et utilisée pour ajouter cet élément de confiance. Déjà, de nombreux sceaux de qualité sont apparus sur les sites commerciaux. Certains sceaux portent sur la confidentialité tandis que d’autres ciblent la protection des consommateurs. La certification peut provenir de la compagnie même, d’un tiers certificateur ou d’un organisme public. Ces éléments constituent des balises et repères importants pour le consommateur sur Internet. Toutefois, les incidences légales sont multiples et certains concepts demeurent flous. Pour apporter une réponse à ces questions, nous définirons le concept de certification des sites Web et ses enjeux dont plus particulièrement la problématique de la confiance des consommateurs. Les différents objets de la certification seront analysés, tant au niveau de l’entité, du contenu du site que de la dimension transactionnelle de celui-ci. Les processus possibles et les impacts de la certification occupent la seconde partie du travail. Il s’agit d’examiner successivement les étapes menant à la certification, soit l’établissement des standards, de l’évaluation de l’entité et de la certification elle-même. L’analyse des impacts de la certification, tant sur le plan de la portée, de la responsabilité légale et des effets sur la concurrence de la certification constitue quant à eux, l’aboutissement de la recherche, soit de savoir quel est l’impact juridique d’un tel mécanisme. Le but de la recherche est de permettre au lecteur de mieux cerner ce phénomène de l’utilisation de la certification sur Internet avec ses avantages et ses limites. Certes, cet outil peut s’avérer très utile pour bâtir la confiance des consommateurs, promouvoir l’essor du commerce électronique et constituer une forme d’autoréglementation. Toutefois, mal utilisé ou mal encadré, il peut engendrer l’effet inverse et détruire cette confiance si fragile à construire dans un environnement dématérialisé.

Dynamique des communautés végétales et impacts des perturbations humaines sur la végétation des tourbières.

Ce mémoire visait à comprendre la dynamique temporelle et les patrons floristiques actuels de deux tourbières du sud-ouest du Québec (Small et Large Tea Field) et à identifier les facteurs anthropiques, environnementaux et spatiaux sous-jacents. Pour répondre aux objectifs, des inventaires floristiques anciens (1985) ont d’abord été comparés à des inventaires récents (2012) puis les patrons actuels et les facteurs sous-jacents ont été identifiés à l’aide d’analyses multi-variables. Mes résultats montrent d’abord qu’un boisement important s’est produit au cours des 30 dernières années dans les tourbières à l’étude, probablement en lien avec le drainage des terres agricoles avoisinantes, diminuant la hauteur de la nappe phréatique. Simultanément, les sphaignes ont proliférées dans le centre des sites s’expliquant par une recolonisation des secteurs ayant brûlés en 1983. D’autre part, mes analyses ont montré que les patrons floristiques actuels étaient surtout liés aux variables environnementales (pH et conductivité de l’eau, épaisseur des dépôts), bien que la variance associée aux activités humaines était aussi significative, notamment dans la tourbière Large (18.6%). Les patrons floristiques ainsi que les variables environnementales et anthropiques explicatives étaient aussi fortement structurés dans l’espace, notamment selon un gradient bordure-centre. Enfin, la diversité béta actuelle était surtout liée à la présence d’espèces non-tourbicoles ou exotiques. Globalement, cette étude a montré que les perturbations humaines passées et actuelles avaient un impact important sur la dynamique et la distribution de la végétation des tourbières Small et Large Tea Field.

Impacts fonctionnels diurnes et corrélats psychopathologiques dans le somnambulisme adulte

Le somnambulisme est un trouble du sommeil fréquent qui affecte jusqu’à 4% de la population adulte et comporte un risque important de blessures. Les mécanismes à la base du somnambulisme demeurent méconnus mais il a été historiquement associé à la présence de psychopathologie. À ce jour, la majorité des efforts de recherche se sont concentrés autour des manifestations nocturnes du somnambulisme, tandis que très peu d’études se sont intéressées aux conséquences diurnes. Le premier objectif de cette thèse était de préciser le lien entre le somnambulisme et la psychopathologie en mesurant la prévalence de symptômes dépressifs et anxieux au sein d’un large échantillon de somnambules. Les résultats ont montré que seule une minorité de patients présentait des symptômes significatifs de psychopathologie et que le profil clinique des patients avec et sans symptômes de psychopathologie était globalement similaire. Les patients qui présentaient les symptômes anxiodépressifs les plus sévères ont néanmoins rapporté dans une plus faible proportion avoir une histoire familiale de somnambulisme comparativement aux autres patients. À l’inverse, ils ont rapporté souffrir de cauchemars dans une plus grande proportion. Le second objectif de cette thèse était de mieux documenter les conséquences diurnes du somnambulisme. La deuxième étude a montré que près de la moitié des somnambules présentaient des niveaux pathologiques de somnolence diurne. Toutefois, la somnolence ne s’est révélée associée à aucun des marqueurs polysomnographiques de fragmentation et de profondeur du sommeil. La troisième étude a quant à elle montré qu’une privation de 25h de sommeil avait chez les somnambules un impact négatif sur les capacités d’inhibition motrice comparativement aux contrôles. Cette diminution de la performance n’était toutefois pas associée à la fragmentation du sommeil chez les somnambules. De plus, la privation de sommeil n’a pas eu d’effet différentiel sur la capacité d’attention soutenue des somnambules. Enfin, aucune différence de performance aux tâches neuropsychologiques n’a été observée entre les groupes à l’état d’éveil normal. Dans l’ensemble, cette thèse suggère que la majorité des somnambules ne présente pas de signe de psychopathologie significative. Les résultats mettent cependant en évidence la présence d’altérations significatives du fonctionnement diurne. Le caractère idiopathique de ces altérations fonctionnelles suggère qu’elles pourraient être liées aux mécanismes physiopathologiques à la base du somnambulisme. L’étude des phénomènes diurnes constitue donc une avenue de recherche prometteuse afin de mieux comprendre les impacts cliniques et les mécanismes à la base du somnambulisme.

Can the dynamical impact of the stratosphere on the troposphere be described by large-scale adjustment to the stratospheric PV distribution?

Recent numerical experiments have demonstrated that the state of the stratosphere has a dynamical impact on the state of the troposphere. To account for such an effect, a number of mechanisms have been proposed in the literature, all of which amount to a large-scale adjustment of the troposphere to potential vorticity (PV) anomalies in the stratosphere. This paper analyses whether a simple PV adjustment suffices to explain the actual dynamical response of the troposphere to the state of the stratosphere, the actual response being determined by ensembles of numerical experiments run with an atmospheric general-circulation model. For this purpose, a new PV inverter is developed. It is shown that the simple PV adjustment hypothesis is inadequate. PV anomalies in the stratosphere induce, by inversion, flow anomalies in the troposphere that do not coincide spatially with the tropospheric changes determined by the numerical experiments. Moreover, the tropospheric anomalies induced by PV inversion are on a larger scale than the changes found in the numerical experiments, which are linked to the Atlantic and Pacific storm-tracks. These findings imply that the impact of the stratospheric state on the troposphere is manifested through the impact on individual synoptic-scale systems and their self-organization in the storm-tracks. Changes in these weather systems in the troposphere are not merely synoptic-scale noise on a larger scale tropospheric response, but an integral part of the mechanism by which the state of the stratosphere impacts that of the troposphere.

Methods and resources for climate impacts research: achieving synergy

The prediction of climate variability and change requires the use of a range of simulation models. Multiple climate model simulations are needed to sample the inherent uncertainties in seasonal to centennial prediction. Because climate models are computationally expensive, there is a tradeoff between complexity, spatial resolution, simulation length, and ensemble size. The methods used to assess climate impacts are examined in the context of this trade-off. An emphasis on complexity allows simulation of coupled mechanisms, such as the carbon cycle and feedbacks between agricultural land management and climate. In addition to improving skill, greater spatial resolution increases relevance to regional planning. Greater ensemble size improves the sampling of probabilities. Research from major international projects is used to show the importance of synergistic research efforts. The primary climate impact examined is crop yield, although many of the issues discussed are relevant to hydrology and health modeling. Methods used to bridge the scale gap between climate and crop models are reviewed. Recent advances include large-area crop modeling, quantification of uncertainty in crop yield, and fully integrated crop–climate modeling. The implications of trends in computer power, including supercomputers, are also discussed.

Reductions in insecticide use from adoption of Bt cotton in South Africa: impacts on economic performance and toxic load to the environment

The study reported presents the findings relating to commercial growing of genetically-modified Bt cotton in South Africa by a large sample of smallholder farmers over three seasons (1998/99, 1999/2000, 2000/01) following adoption. The analysis presents constructs and compares groupwise differences for key variables in Bt v. non-Bt technology and uses regressions to further analyse the production and profit impacts of Bt adoption. Analysis of the distribution of benefits between farmers due to the technology is also presented. In parallel with these socio-economic measures, the toxic loads being presented to the environment following the introduction of Bt cotton are monitored in terms of insecticide active ingredient (ai) and the Biocide Index. The latter adjusts ai to allow for differing persistence and toxicity of insecticides. Results show substantial and significant financial benefits to smallholder cotton growers of adopting Bt cotton over three seasons in terms of increased yields, lower insecticide spray costs and higher gross margins. This includes one particularly wet, poor growing season. In addition, those with the smaller holdings appeared to benefit proportionately more from the technology (in terms of higher gross margins) than those with larger holdings. Analysis using the Gini-coefficient suggests that the Bt technology has helped to reduce inequality amongst smallholder cotton growers in Makhathini compared to what may have been the position if they had grown conventional cotton. However, while Bt growers applied lower amounts of insecticide and had lower Biocide Indices (per ha) than growers of non-Bt cotton, some of this advantage was due to a reduction in non-bollworm insecticide. Indeed, the Biocide Index for all farmers in the population actually increased with the introduction of Bt cotton. The results indicate the complexity of such studies on the socio-economic and environmental impacts of GM varieties in the developing world.

Impacts of forestry on nitrogen in upland and lowland catchments: a comparison of the River Severn at Plynlimon in mid-Wales and the Bedford Ouse in south-east England using the INCA Model

The impacts of afforestation at Plynlimon in the Severn catchment, mid-Wales. and in the Bedford Ouse catchment in south-east England are evaluated using the INCA model to simulate Nitrogen (N) fluxes and concentrations. The INCA model represents the key hydrological and N processes operating in catchments and simulates the daily dynamic behaviour as well as the annual fluxes. INCA has been applied to five years of data front the Hafren and Hore headwater sub-catchments (6.8 km(2) area in total) of the River Severn at Plytilimon and the model was calibrated and validated against field data. Simulation of afforestation is achieved by altering the uptake rate parameters in the model. INCA simulates the daily N behaviour in the catchments with good accuracy as well as reconstructing the annual budgets for N release following clearfelling a four-fold increase in N fluxes was followed by a slow recovery after re-afforestation. For comparison, INCA has been applied to the large (8380 km(2)) Bedford Ouse catchment to investigate the impact of replacing 20% arable land with forestry. The reduction in fertiliser inputs from arable farming and the N uptake by the forest are predicted to reduce the N flux reaching the main river system, leading to a 33% reduction in N-Nitrate concentrations in the river water.

Integrated modelling of climate change impacts on water resources and quality in a lowland catchment: River Kennet, UK

An integrated approach to climate change impact assessment is explored by linking established models of regional climate (SDSM), water resources (CATCHMOD) and water quality (INCA) within a single framework. A case study of the River Kennet illustrates how the system can be used to investigate aspects of climate change uncertainty, deployable water resources, and water quality dynamics in upper and lower reaches of the drainage network. The results confirm the large uncertainty in climate change scenarios and freshwater impacts due to the choice of general circulation model (GCM). This uncertainty is shown to be greatest during summer months as evidenced by large variations between GCM-derived projections of future tow river flows, deployable yield from groundwater, severity of nutrient flushing episodes, and Long-term trends in surface water quality. Other impacts arising from agricultural land-use reform or delivery of EU Water Framework Directive objectives under climate change could be evaluated using the same framework. (c) 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Climate impacts of recent multidecadal changes in Atlantic Ocean Sea Surface Temperature: A multimodel comparison

During the twentieth century sea surface temperatures in the Atlantic Ocean exhibited prominent multidecadal variations. The source of such variations has yet to be rigorously established—but the question of their impact on climate can be investigated. Here we report on a set of multimodel experiments to examine the impact of patterns of warming in the North Atlantic, and cooling in the South Atlantic, derived from observations, that is characteristic of the positive phase of the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation (AMO). The experiments were carried out with six atmospheric General Circulation Models (including two versions of one model), and a major goal was to assess the extent to which key climate impacts are consistent between the different models. The major climate impacts are found over North and South America, with the strongest impacts over land found over the United States and northern parts of South America. These responses appear to be driven by a combination of an off-equatorial Gill response to diabatic heating over the Caribbean due to increased rainfall within the region and a Northward shift in the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) due to the anomalous cross-equatorial SST gradient. The majority of the models show warmer US land temperatures and reduced Mean Sea Level Pressure during summer (JJA) in response to a warmer North Atlantic and a cooler South Atlantic, in line with observations. However the majority of models show no significant impact on US rainfall during summer. Over northern South America, all models show reduced rainfall in southern hemisphere winter (JJA), whilst in Summer (DJF) there is a generally an increase in rainfall. However, there is a large spread amongst the models in the magnitude of the rainfall anomalies over land. Away from the Americas, there are no consistent significant modelled responses. In particular there are no significant changes in the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) over the North Atlantic and Europe in Winter (DJF). Additionally, the observed Sahel drying signal in African rainfall is not seen in the modelled responses. Suggesting that, in contrast to some studies, the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation was not the primary driver of recent reductions in Sahel rainfall.

When smoke gets in our eyes: The multiple impacts of atmospheric black carbon on climate, air quality and health

With both climate change and air quality on political and social agendas from local to global scale, the links between these hitherto separate fields are becoming more apparent. Black carbon, largely from combustion processes, scatters and absorbs incoming solar radiation, contributes to poor air quality and induces respiratory and cardiovascular problems. Uncertainties in the amount, location, size and shape of atmospheric black carbon cause large uncertainty in both climate change estimates and toxicology studies alike. Increased research has led to new effects and areas of uncertainty being uncovered. Here we draw together recent results and explore the increasing opportunities for synergistic research that will lead to improved confidence in the impact of black carbon on climate change, air quality and human health. Topics of mutual interest include better information on spatial distribution, size, mixing state and measuring and monitoring. (c) 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Reductions in insecticide use from adoption of Bt cotton in South Africa: impacts on economic performance and toxic load to the environment

The study reported presents the findings relating to commercial growing of genetically-modified Bt cotton in South Africa by a large sample of smallholder farmers over three seasons (1998/99, 1999/2000, 2000/01) following adoption. The analysis presents constructs and compares groupwise differences for key variables in Bt v. non-Bt technology and uses regressions to further analyse the production and profit impacts of Bt adoption. Analysis of the distribution of benefits between farmers due to the technology is also presented. In parallel with these socio-economic measures, the toxic loads being presented to the environment following the introduction of Bt cotton are monitored in terms of insecticide active ingredient (ai) and the Biocide Index. The latter adjusts ai to allow for differing persistence and toxicity of insecticides. Results show substantial and significant financial benefits to smallholder cotton growers of adopting Bt cotton over three seasons in terms of increased yields, lower insecticide spray costs and higher gross margins. This includes one particularly wet, poor growing season. In addition, those with the smaller holdings appeared to benefit proportionately more from the technology (in terms of higher gross margins) than those with larger holdings. Analysis using the Gini-coefficient suggests that the Bt technology has helped to reduce inequality amongst smallholder cotton growers in Makhathini compared to what may have been the position if they had grown conventional cotton. However, while Bt growers applied lower amounts of insecticide and had lower Biocide Indices (per ha) than growers of non-Bt cotton, some of this advantage was due to a reduction in non-bollworm insecticide. Indeed, the Biocide Index for all farmers in the population actually increased with the introduction of Bt cotton. The results indicate the complexity of such studies on the socio-economic and environmental impacts of GM varieties in the developing world.

Design and optimisation of a large-area process-based model for annual crops

The formulation of a new process-based crop model, the general large-area model (GLAM) for annual crops is presented. The model has been designed to operate on spatial scales commensurate with those of global and regional climate models. It aims to simulate the impact of climate on crop yield. Procedures for model parameter determination and optimisation are described, and demonstrated for the prediction of groundnut (i.e. peanut; Arachis hypogaea L.) yields across India for the period 1966-1989. Optimal parameters (e.g. extinction coefficient, transpiration efficiency, rate of change of harvest index) were stable over space and time, provided the estimate of the yield technology trend was based on the full 24-year period. The model has two location-specific parameters, the planting date, and the yield gap parameter. The latter varies spatially and is determined by calibration. The optimal value varies slightly when different input data are used. The model was tested using a historical data set on a 2.5degrees x 2.5degrees grid to simulate yields. Three sites are examined in detail-grid cells from Gujarat in the west, Andhra Pradesh towards the south, and Uttar Pradesh in the north. Agreement between observed and modelled yield was variable, with correlation coefficients of 0.74, 0.42 and 0, respectively. Skill was highest where the climate signal was greatest, and correlations were comparable to or greater than correlations with seasonal mean rainfall. Yields from all 35 cells were aggregated to simulate all-India yield. The correlation coefficient between observed and simulated yields was 0.76, and the root mean square error was 8.4% of the mean yield. The model can be easily extended to any annual crop for the investigation of the impacts of climate variability (or change) on crop yield over large areas. (C) 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Establishment of a Cross-European Field Site Network in the ALARM Project for Assessing Large-Scale Changes in Biodiversity

The field site network (FSN) plays a central role in conducting joint research within all Assessing Large-scale Risks for biodiversity with tested Methods (ALARM) modules and provides a mechanism for integrating research on different topics in ALARM on the same site for measuring multiple impacts on biodiversity. The network covers most European climates and biogeographic regions, from Mediterranean through central European and boreal to subarctic. The project links databases with the European-wide field site network FSN, including geographic information system (GIS)-based information to characterise the test location for ALARM researchers for joint on-site research. Maps are provided in a standardised way and merged with other site-specific information. The application of GIS for these field sites and the information management promotes the use of the FSN for research and to disseminate the results. We conclude that ALARM FSN sites together with other research sites in Europe jointly could be used as a future backbone for research proposals

Climate change and coastal waterbird populations – past declines and future impacts

Considerable attention has been given to the impact of climate change on avian populations over the last decade. In this paper we examine two issues with respect to coastal bird populations in the UK: (1) is there any evidence that current populations are declining due to climate change, and (2) how might we predict the response of populations in the future? We review the cause of population decline in two species associated with saltmarsh habitats. The abundance of Common Redshank Tringa totanus breeding on saltmarsh declined by about 23% between the mid-1980s and mid-1990s, but the decline appears to have been caused by an increase in grazing pressure. The number of Twite Carduelis flavirostris wintering on the coast of East Anglia has declined dramatically over recent decades; there is evidence linking this decline with habitat loss but a causal role for climate change is unclear. These examples illustrate that climate change could be having population-level impacts now, but also show that it is dangerous to become too narrowly focused on single issues affecting coastal birds. Making predictions about how populations might respond to future climate change depends on an adequate understanding of important ecological processes at an appropriate spatial scale. We illustrate this with recent work conducted on the Icelandic population of Black-tailed Godwits Limosa limosa islandica that shows large-scale regulatory processes. Most predictive models to date have focused on local populations (single estuary or a group of neighbouring estuaries). We discuss the role such models might play in risk assessment, and the need for them to be linked to larger-scale ecological processes. We argue that future work needs to focus on spatial scale issues and on linking physical models of coastal environments with important ecological processes.

ALARM: Assessing large-scale environment risks for biodiversity with tested methods

The EU-funded research project ALARM will develop and test methods and protocols for the assessment of large-scale environmental risks in order to minimise negative human impacts. Research focuses on the assessment and forecast of changes in biodiversity and in the structure, function, and dynamics of ecosystems. This includes the relationships between society, the economy and biodiversity.