Les immunoglobulines intraveineuses et la réponse spécifique des cellules T dans la prévention de la maladie lymphoproliférative post-greffe associée au virus Epstein-Barr chez les enfants greffés de cellules souches hématopoïétiques.

La maladie lymphoproliférative post-greffe (MLP) est une complication grave chez les greffés (d’organes solides ou de cellules souches hématopoïétiques) immunosupprimés suite à l'infection par le virus Epstein-Barr (VEB). En l’absence d'une réponse efficace des lymphocytes T cytotoxiques, les cellules B infectées par le VEB peuvent proliférer et donner lieu à la MLP. Dans le cas des receveurs de greffe immunosupprimés, les cellules B infectées par le VEB de façon lytique, produisent activement de nouveaux virions. Ces derniers infectent les cellules B voisines, entraînant leur expansion polyclonale. La gp350, une protéine du cycle lytique située dans l'enveloppe virale, joue un rôle important dans l'infection par le VEB. Elle interagit avec le récepteur CD21 exprimée à la surface des cellules B pour permettre l’entrée du virus. Ainsi, des anticorps neutralisants anti-gp350 sont considérés être des acteurs clés dans le blocage de l'infection, empêchant ainsi le développement de la MLP. L'effet protecteur des immunoglobulines intraveineuses (IgIV) à titre prophylactique contre le VEB et la MLP chez les greffés de cellules souches hématopoïétiques n’est pas clairement démontré. Par conséquent, le premier objectif de cette thèse a proposé d'évaluer l'efficacité des IgIV contre l'infection par le VEB et la MLP chez les receveurs de cellules souches hématopoïétiques. Le deuxième objectif a proposé de déterminer, en utilisant la technique ELISpot, si la présence d'une réponse forte des lymphocytes T contre l'antigène précoce BMLF1 du cycle lytique du VEB pourrait constituer un marqueur de protection contre la MLP chez les greffés de cellules souches hématopoïétiques. Les résultats ont montré d'une part que, si les IgIV peuvent neutraliser efficacement l'infection par le VEB in vitro, ils ne protègent pas efficacement les patients greffés contre l'infection par le VEB in vivo. D'autre part, l'étude de la réponse des lymphocytes T contre des antigènes du VEB a démontré que les cellules T de certains patients sont capables de reconnaître l'antigène lytique BMLF1. Cette réponse spécifique des lymphocytes T peut s’avérer un bon marqueur de la protection contre la MLP. Les résultats de cette thèse démontrent que l’infection lytique au VEB joue un rôle fondamental dans le développement de la MLP. Les données indiquent également que la présence d'une réponse spécifique des lymphocytes T contre un antigène du cycle lytique du VEB peut constituer un bon marqueur de la protection contre la MLP. Cependant, le traitement des patients recevant des greffes de cellules souches hématopoïétiques avec les IgIV n’apparaît pas efficace dans la prévention de la MLP.

Carga viral de seis tipos de Virus del Papiloma Humano de alto riesgo y su asociacion con lesiones cervicales

Introducción: La infección por un tipo de Virus del Papiloma Humano de alto riesgo (VPH-AR), es el factor principal en el desarrollo de Cáncer de Cérvix (CC). La carga viral puede modular esta asociación, por lo que resulta importante su cuantificación y el establecimiento de su relación con lesiones precursoras de CC. Metodología: 60 mujeres con lesiones escamosas intraepiteliales (LEI) y 120 mujeres sin LEI, confirmadas por colposcopia, fueron incluidas en el estudio. Se determinó la carga viral de 6 tipos de VPH-AR, mediante PCR en tiempo real. Se estimaron OR crudos y ajustados para evaluar la asociación entre la carga viral de cada tipo y las lesiones cervicales. Resultados: 93.22% de mujeres con LEI y 91.23% de mujeres negativas, fueron positivas para al menos un tipo de VPH. VPH-18 y VPH-16 fueron los tipos más prevalentes, junto con VPH-31 en mujeres sin LEI. No se encontraron diferencias estadísticamente significativas de las cargas virales entre éstos dos grupos, aunque se observó un mayor carga viral en lesiones para algunos tipos virales. Una mayor frecuencia de lesiones se asoció a infecciones con carga baja de VPH-16 (ORa: 3.53; IC95%: 1.16 – 10.74), en comparación a mujeres con carga alta de VPH-16, (ORa: 2.63; IC95%: 1.09 – 6.36). En infecciones por VPH-31, la presencia de carga viral alta, se asoció con una menor frecuencia de lesiones (ORa: 0.34; IC95%: 0.15 – 0.78). Conclusiones: La prevalencia tipo-específica de VPH se corresponde con las reportadas a nivel mundial. La asociación entre la carga viral del VPH y la frecuencia de LEI es tipo específica y podría depender de la duración de la infección, altas cargas relacionadas con infecciones transitorias, y bajas cargas con persistentes. Este trabajo contribuye al entendimiento del efecto de la carga viral en la historia natural del CC; sin embargo, estudios prospectivos son necesarios para confirmar estos resultados.

CD27 mediates interleukin-2-independent clonal expansion of the CD8+ T cell without effector differentiation

The clonal expansion of antigen-specific CD8+ T cells in response to microbial infections is essential for adaptive immunity. Although IL-2 has been considered to be primarily responsible for this process, quantitatively normal expansion occurs in the absence of IL-2 receptor signaling. Here, we show that ligating CD27 on CD8+ T cells that have been stimulated through the T cell receptor causes their expansion in the absence of IL-2 by mediating two distinct cellular processes: enhancing cell cycling and promoting cell survival by maintaining the expression of IL-7 receptor alpha. This pathway for clonal expansion of the CD8+ T cell is not associated with the development of a capacity either for production of IFN-gamma or for cytotoxic T lymphocyte function and, therefore, is uncoupled from differentiation. Furthermore, ligating CD27 increases the threshold concentration at which IL-2 induces IFN-gamma-producing capability by the CD8+ T cell, suggesting that CD27 signaling may suppress effector differentiation. Finally, CD8+ T cells that have been stimulated by the TCR/CD27 pathway maintain their capacity for subsequent expansion and effector differentiation in response to a viral challenge in vivo. Thus, the TCR/CD27 pathway enables the CD8+ T cell to replicate by a process of self-renewal, which may contribute to the continuous generation of new effector CD8+ T cells in persistent viral infections.

Análise histopatológica de fígado de tilápias (Oreochromis Niloticus) expostas ao herbicida 2,4-D comercial

The action of man has led, over the years, major impacts on the environment, especially in aquatic ecosystems, leading to an impairment of water quality, considered one of the essential factors for the maintenance of vital functions and consequently the life of the planet. Among the activities considered a risk for the environment are linked to pollution from many sources and even entire watersheds, whether by industrial waste, sewage, or for substances used in agriculture, such as pesticides, herbicides and fertilizers. The (2,4-D) 2,4- dichlorophenoxyacetic acid is used worldwide, and the fact that its genotoxicity is proven by several studies and by its long persistence in soil, which enables the leaching and percolation of compounds affecting water bodies, toxicity studies are relevant and justifiable. Thus, this study aimed to evaluate the toxicity of 2,4-D by examining the liver of the fish Oreochromis niloticus exposed to different dilutions. Portions of liver were collected and fixed for histological and histochemical techniques to detect total proteins, polysaccharides and lipids. lipids. Treatment with 2,4-D herbicide apparently did not alter the lipid profiles, the accumulation of polysaccharides, and the presence of total proteins. The 2.5 and 5.0% were lethal to fish. These mortalities are probably of high toxic and cytotoxic potential of 2,4-D herbicide results. Several histopathological changes were found, such as: loss of cytoplasmic integrity, loss of cell limit, nuclear deformation, vacuolated cytoplasm, tissue disorganization and hydropic degeneration. Statistically significant changes were: hydropic degeneration and vacuolated cytoplasm. It is concluded, therefore, that the qualitative morphological analysis is an important method for observing changes in liver toxicology studies. As the O. niloticus species is an efficient biological indicator of water pollution by 2,4-D

Análise histopatológica de fígado de tilápias (Oreochromis Niloticus) expostas ao herbicida 2,4-D comercial

The action of man has led, over the years, major impacts on the environment, especially in aquatic ecosystems, leading to an impairment of water quality, considered one of the essential factors for the maintenance of vital functions and consequently the life of the planet. Among the activities considered a risk for the environment are linked to pollution from many sources and even entire watersheds, whether by industrial waste, sewage, or for substances used in agriculture, such as pesticides, herbicides and fertilizers. The (2,4-D) 2,4- dichlorophenoxyacetic acid is used worldwide, and the fact that its genotoxicity is proven by several studies and by its long persistence in soil, which enables the leaching and percolation of compounds affecting water bodies, toxicity studies are relevant and justifiable. Thus, this study aimed to evaluate the toxicity of 2,4-D by examining the liver of the fish Oreochromis niloticus exposed to different dilutions. Portions of liver were collected and fixed for histological and histochemical techniques to detect total proteins, polysaccharides and lipids. lipids. Treatment with 2,4-D herbicide apparently did not alter the lipid profiles, the accumulation of polysaccharides, and the presence of total proteins. The 2.5 and 5.0% were lethal to fish. These mortalities are probably of high toxic and cytotoxic potential of 2,4-D herbicide results. Several histopathological changes were found, such as: loss of cytoplasmic integrity, loss of cell limit, nuclear deformation, vacuolated cytoplasm, tissue disorganization and hydropic degeneration. Statistically significant changes were: hydropic degeneration and vacuolated cytoplasm. It is concluded, therefore, that the qualitative morphological analysis is an important method for observing changes in liver toxicology studies. As the O. niloticus species is an efficient biological indicator of water pollution by 2,4-D

Tolerance and immunity to human tumor-associated antigens

Tumor-assoziierte Antigene (TAA) repräsentieren wichtige Zielstrukturen in zytotoxischen T-Zell (ZTL)-basierten Immuntherapien zur Behandlung maligner Erkrankungen. Die Tatsache, dass TAA nicht spezifisch nur in Tumoren sondern auch in nicht-transformierten Zellen vorhanden sind, kann infolge verschiedener Toleranz-Mechanismen zur Eliminierung von ZTL führen, deren T-Zell-Rezeptoren eine hohe Affinität für TAA besitzen. Entsprechend erfordert die Entwicklung effektiver Immuntherapeutika die genaue Analyse des verfügbaren T-Zell-Repertoires mit Spezifität für ein gegebenes TAA.Die Arbeit fokusierte das Tyrosinase (369-377) ZTL-Epitop, das im Komplex mit HLA-A*0201 (A2.1) auf der Zell-Oberfläche von malignen Melanomen und verschiedenen nicht-transformierten Zellen präsentiert wird. Es wurde gefunden, dass sowohl das humane als auch das murine Tyrosinase (369-377)-spezifische ZTL-Repertoire durch Selbst-Toleranz kompromittiert ist und dass diese Toleranz weder durch Verwendung einer bestimmten Peptid-Variante noch durch Interferenz mit CD4+CD25+ regulatorischen T-Zellen oder CTLA-4 umgangen werden kann. Diese Ergebnisse wurden anschließend auf ein anderes Krankheitsmodell, das Multiple Myelom (MM), adaptiert. Unter Umgehung von Selbst-Toleranz in A2.1-transgenen Mäusen wurde gezeigt, dass Transkriptionsfaktoren, die die terminale Differenzierung von B-Zellen in maligne und nicht-maligne Plasmazellen diktieren, als MM-assoziierte ZTL-Epitope dienen können.Diese Arbeit bietet einen bedeutenden und innovativen Beitrag zur Gestaltung von Tyrosinase-basierten Melanom- und MM-reaktiven Immuntherapien.

Molecular characterization of the immune modulatory function of matrix metalloproteinase-7, a factor in the tumour micromilieu

Matrix metalloproteinases are the components of the tumour microenvironment which play a crucial role in tumour progression. Matrix metalloproteinase-7 (MMP-7) is expressed in a variety of tumours and the expression is associated with an aggressive malignant phenotype and poor prognosis. A role for MMP-7 in the immune escape of tumours has been postulated, but the mechanisms are not clearly understood. The present study was focused on identifying physiological inactivators of MMP-7 and also to unravel the mechanisms involved in MMP-7 mediated immune escape. This study shows that human leukocyte elastase (HLE), secreted by polymorphonuclear leukocytes cleaves MMP-7 in the catalytic domain as revealed by N-terminal sequencing. Further analysis demonstrates that the activity of MMP-7 was drastically decreased after HLE treatment in a time and dose dependent manner. MMP-7 induces apoptosis resistance in tumour cells by cleaving CD95 and CD95L. The effect of HLE on MMP-7 mediated apoptosis resistance was analysed. In vitro stimulation of apoptosis by anti-Apo-1 (anti-CD95 antibody) and the chemotherapeutic drug doxorubicin is reduced by MMP-7. Also tumour specific cytotoxic T cells do not effectively kill tumour cells in the presence of MMP-7. This study revealed that HLE abrogates the negative effect of MMP-7 on apoptosis induced by CD95 stimulation, doxorubicin or cytotoxic T cells and restores apoptosis sensitivity of tumour cells. To gain insight into the possible immune modulatory functions of MMP-7, experiments were performed to identify new immune relevant substrates. The human T cell line, Jurkat, was selected for these studies. Hsc70 which is involved in uncoating of clathrin vesicles was found in the supernatants of the MMP-7 treated cells indicating a modulatory role of MMP-7 on endocytosis. Further studies demonstrated that MMP-7 leads to decreased clathrin staining in HEK293, HepG2, Jurkat, CD4+ T cells and dendritic cells. Results also show MMP-7 treatment increased surface expression of cytotoxic T lymphocyte associated protein-4 (CTLA-4) which accumulated due to inhibition of the clathrin mediated internalization in CD4+CD25+ cells.

Untersuchungen zur Lymphozytotoxizität gegen Tumoren in Nierenzellkarzinom-Patienten und HLA-kompatiblen gesunden Spendern

In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurden Blutlymphozyten, die aus allogenen, serologisch HLA (humanes Leukozytenantigen)-identischen gesunden Geschwisterspendern von Nierenzellkarzinom (RCC, engl. renal cell carcinoma)-Patienten isoliert wurden, auf ihre antitumorale Reaktivität in vitro untersucht. Dazu war die vorangehende Generierung von stabil in vitro wachsenden Tumorzelllinien der Patienten zwingende Voraussetzung. Insgesamt wurden aus primärem Tumorgewebe von 65 Nierenzellkarzinom-Patienten Tumorzellen isoliert und daraus Zellkulturen angelegt. In 28 % der Fälle gelang es, eine konstant in Zellkultur wachsende Tumorzelllinie zu etablieren. Daneben wurden aus 56 Tumorpatienten auch die aus dem angrenzenden Nierengewebe gewonnenen nicht-malignen Nierenzellen über wenige Zellkultur-Passagen expandiert. In vier Patienten mit stabil in vitro wachsender Tumorzelllinie war ein allogener HLA-identischer Geschwisterspender verfügbar. In diesen Modellsystemen wurden in gemischten Lymphozyten-Tumorzell-Kulturen (MLTCs, engl. mixed lymphocyte tumor cell cultures) die Blutlymphozyten der Patienten und der gesunden Geschwisterspender mit der jeweiligen Nierenzellkarzinom-Zelllinie stimuliert und tumorreaktive CD8+ zytotoxische T-Lymphozyten (CTLs, engl. cytotoxic T-lymphocytes) generiert. Wenn möglich wurden aus den so gewonnenen „Responder“-Massenkulturen CD8+ T-Zellklone isoliert und hinsichtlich ihrer Funktionalität in IFN-γ-ELISpot-Assays und 51Chrom-Zytotoxizitätstests untersucht. Durch Blockade der HLA-Moleküle mit monoklonalen Antikörpern wurden die HLA-Restriktionselemente sowie weitere an der Erkennung beteiligte Oberflächenmoleküle analysiert. Kreuzreaktivitätsuntersuchungen mit einem breiten Zielzell-„Panel“ gaben Aufschluss über die Reaktivität der CTLs gegen RCC, nicht-maligne Nierenzellen, hämatopoetische Zielzellen von Patient und Geschwisterspender und weitere Tumorzelllinien aus Nierenzellkarzinomen und anderen Tumorentitäten. Interessanterweise zeigten die Geschwister-MLTC-„Responder“-Lymphozyten im Vergleich zu den autologen MLTC-„Responder“-Lymphozyten eine stärkere Proliferation und Zytotoxizität nach Stimulation mit Tumorzellen. Die allogenen tumorreaktiven „Responder“-Lymphozyten entstammten der CD8+ CD62L(high)+ Subpopulation, die naive Vorläufer- und „central memory“-T-Zellen enthält. Im Gegensatz zu autologen MLTC-Lymphozyten und tumorinfiltrierenden Lymphozyten konnte aus nahezu allen allogenen MLTCs mithilfe des Grenzverdünnungsverfahrens ein breites Spektrum an tumorreaktiven CTL-Klonen expandiert werden. Diese lysierten entweder ausschließlich die autologe RCC-Zelllinie oder kreuzreagierten mit autologen nicht-malignen Nierenzellen. Eine Minderheit der CTL-Klone erkannte außerdem hämatopoetische Zellen des Patienten oder allogene Tumorzellen. Als HLA-Restriktionselemente der allogenen tumorreaktiven CD8+ CTL-Klone wurden HLA-A2, -A3, -A11, -A24 und -B7 identifiziert. Weiterhin wurden in einem Modellsystem bisher unbekannte, stark proliferierende CD3+ CD16+ CD57+ CTL-Klone mit nicht-HLA-restringierter Tumorreaktivität isoliert. Zusammenfassend zeigt diese Arbeit erstmals, dass allogene Blutlymphozyten von HLA-identischen gesunden Geschwistern eine Vielfalt von tumorreaktiven CD8+ CTL-Klonen enthalten. Im direkten Vergleich mit autologen Blutlymphozyten der betroffenen Patienten besitzen allogene Blutlymphozyten der Geschwister eine stärkere proliferative und zytotoxische Tumorreaktivität. Die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit ermutigen weitere Bemühungen, tumorreaktive T-Zellen aus dem Blut von HLA-identischen gesunden Geschwisterspendern in vitro zu generieren. Solche T-Zellen wären in zweierlei Hinsicht von Interesse: Zum einen ermöglichen sie die Identifizierung der Zielantigene, die von T-Zellen aus gesunden Individuen auf Tumoren erkannt werden und als Zielstrukturen von antigenspezifischen Immuntherapien (z. B. Vakzination) dienen könnten. Zum anderen könnten diese T-Zellen möglicherweise für eine adoptive Immuntherapie der betroffenen Tumorpatienten verwendet werden.

The role of dendritic cells (DC) in Friend retrovirus-induced immunosuppression and immunotherapeutic applications of functionalized nanoparticles

Friend murine leukemia Virus (FV) infection of immunocompetent mice is a well- established model to acquire further knowledge about viral immune suppression mechanisms, with the aim to develop therapeutics against retrovirus-induced diseases. Interestingly, BALB/c mice are infected by low doses of FV and die from FV-induced erythroleukemia, while C57/BL6 mice are infected by FV only at high viral dose, and remain persistently infected for their whole life. Due to the central role of dendritic cells (DC) in the induction of anti-viral responses, we asked for their functional role in the genotype-dependent sensitivity towards FV infection. In my PhD study I showed that bone marrow (BM)-derived DC differentiated from FV-infected BM cells obtained from FV-inoculated BALB/c (FV susceptible) and C57BL/6 (FV resistant) mice showed an increased endocytotic activity and lowered expression of MHCII and of costimulatory receptors as compared with non-infected control BMDC. FV-infected BMDC from either mouse strain were partially resistant towards stimulation-induced upregulation of MHCII and costimulators, and accordingly were poor T cell stimulators in vitro and in vivo. In addition, FV-infected BMDC displayed an altered expression profile of proinflammator cytokines and favoured Th2 polarization. Ongoing work is focussed on elucidating the functional role of proteins identified as differentially expressed in FV-infected DC in a genotype-dependent manner, which therefore may contribute to the differential course of FV infection in vivo in BALB/c versus C57BL/6 mice. So far, more than 300 proteins have been identified which are differently regulated in FV-infected vs. uninfected DC from both mouse strains. One of these proteins, S100A9, was strongly upregulated specifically in BMDC derived from FV-infected C57BL/6 BM cells. S100A9-/- mice were more sensitive towards inoculation with FV than corresponding wild type (WT) mice (both C57BL/6 background), which suggests a decisive role of this factor for anti-viral defense. In addition, FV-infected S100A9-/- BMDC showed lower motility than WT DC. The future work is aimed to further elucidate the functional importance of S100A9 for DC functions. To exploit the potential of DC for immunotherapeutic applications, in another project of this PhD study the usability of different types of functionalized nanoparticles

Isolated mediotegmental lesion causing narcolepsy and rapid eye movement sleep behaviour disorder: a case evidencing a common pathway in narcolepsy and rapid eye movement sleep behaviour disorder

Narcolepsy is usually an idiopathic disorder, often with a genetic predisposition. Symptomatic cases have been described repeatedly, often as a consequence of hypothalamic lesions. Conversely, REM (rapid eye movement) sleep behaviour disorder (RBD) is usually a secondary disorder, often due to degenerative brain stem disorders or narcolepsy. The case of a hitherto healthy man is presented, who simultaneously developed narcolepsy and RBD as the result of an acute focal inflammatory lesion in the dorsomedial pontine tegmentum in the presence of normal cerebrospinal fluid hypocretin-1 levels and in the absence of human lymphocyte antigen haplotypes typically associated with narcolepsy and RBD (DQB1*0602, DQB1*05). This first observation of symptomatic narcolepsy with RBD underlines the importance of the mediotegmental pontine area in the pathophysiology of both disorders, even in the absence of a detectable hypocretin deficiency and a genetic predisposition.

Expression of HLA class I-specific inhibitory natural killer cell receptors in HIV-specific cytolytic T lymphocytes: Impairment of specific cytolytic functions

Human T lymphocytes have been shown to express inhibitory natural killer cell receptors (NKR), which can down-regulate T cell antigen receptor-mediated T cell function, including cytolytic activity. In the present study, we demonstrate that CD3+NKR+ cells can be identified in HIV-infected patients. HIV-specific cytolytic activity was analyzed in five patients in whom autologous lymphoblastoid B cell lines could be derived as a source of autologous target cells. Phytohemagglutinin-activated T cell populations that had been cultured in interleukin 2 displayed HIV-specific cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) activity against HIV env, gag, pol, and nef in 3 of 5 patients. Addition of anti-NKR mAb of IgM isotype could increase the specific CTL activity. Moreover, in one additional patient, HIV-specific CTL activity was undetectable; however, after addition of anti-NKR mAb such CTL activity appeared de novo. Similar results were obtained by analysis of CD3+NKR+ clones derived from two patients. These data provide direct evidence that CD3+NKR+ cells may include antigen (HIV)-specific CTLs and that mAb-mediated masking of inhibitory NKR may revert the down-regulation of CTL function.

CD19 and CD22 expression reciprocally regulates tyrosine phosphorylation of Vav protein during B lymphocyte signaling

B cell development and humoral immune responses are controlled by signaling thresholds established through the B lymphocyte antigen receptor (BCR) complex. BCR signaling thresholds are differentially regulated by the CD22 and CD19 cell surface receptors in vivo. B cells from CD22-deficient mice exhibit characteristics of chronic stimulation and are hyper-responsive to BCR crosslinking with augmented intracellular Ca2+ responses. By contrast, B cells from CD19-deficient mice are hypo-responsive to transmembrane signals. To identify signaling molecules involved in the positive and negative regulation of signaling thresholds, the signal transduction pathways activated after BCR crosslinking were examined in CD22- and CD19-deficient B cells. These comparisons revealed that tyrosine phosphorylation of Vav protein was uniquely augmented after BCR or CD19 crosslinking in CD22-deficient B cells, yet was modest and transient after BCR crosslinking in CD19-deficient B cells. Ligation of CD19 and CD22 in vivo is likely to positively and negatively regulate BCR signaling, respectively, because CD19 crosslinking was more efficient than BCR crosslinking at inducing Vav phosphorylation. However, simultaneous crosslinking of CD19 with the BCR resulted in a substantial decrease in Vav phosphorylation when CD22 was expressed. Thus, the differential regulation of Vav tyrosine phosphorylation by CD19 and CD22 may provide a molecular mechanism for adjusting BCR signaling thresholds.

Specific therapy regimes could lead to long-term immunological control of HIV

We use mathematical models to study the relationship between HIV and the immune system during the natural course of infection and in the context of different antiviral treatment regimes. The models suggest that an efficient cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) memory response is required to control the virus. We define CTL memory as long-term persistence of CTL precursors in the absence of antigen. Infection and depletion of CD4+ T helper cells interfere with CTL memory generation, resulting in persistent viral replication and disease progression. We find that antiviral drug therapy during primary infection can enable the development of CTL memory. In chronically infected patients, specific treatment schedules, either including deliberate drug holidays or antigenic boosts of the immune system, can lead to a re-establishment of CTL memory. Whether such treatment regimes would lead to long-term immunologic control deserves investigation under carefully controlled conditions.

Fas-dependent CD4+ cytotoxic T-cell-mediated pathogenesis during virus infection

β2-Microglobulin-deficient (β2m−) mice generate a CD4+ major histocompatibility complex class II-restricted cytotoxic T-lymphocyte (CTL) response following infection with lymphocytic choriomeningitis (LCM) virus (LCMV). We have determined the cytotoxic mechanism used by these CD4+ CTLs and have examined the role of this cytotoxic activity in pathogenesis of LCM disease in β2m− mice. Lysis of LCMV-infected target cells by CTLs from β2m− mice is inhibited by addition of soluble Fas-Ig fusion proteins or by pretreatment of the CTLs with the protein synthesis inhibitor emetine. In addition, LCMV-infected cell lines that are resistant to anti-Fas-induced apoptosis are refractory to lysis by these virus-specific CD4+ CTLs. These data indicate that LCMV-specific CD4+ CTLs from β2m− mice use a Fas-dependent lytic mechanism. Intracranial (i.c.) infection of β2m− mice with LCMV results in loss of body weight. Fas-deficient β2m−.lpr mice develop a similar wasting disease following i.c. infection. This suggests that Fas-dependent cytotoxicity is not required for LCMV-induced weight loss. A potential mediator of this chronic wasting disease is tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, which is produced by LCMV-specific CD4+ CTLs. In contrast to LCMV-induced weight loss, lethal LCM disease in β2m− mice is dependent on Fas-mediated cytotoxicity. Transfer of immune splenocytes from LCMV-infected β2m− mice into irradiated infected β2m− mice results in death of recipient animals. In contrast, transfer of these splenocytes into irradiated infected β2m−.lpr mice does not cause death. Thus a role for CD4+ T-cell-mediated cytotoxicity in virus-induced immunopathology has now been demonstrated.

CD95/Fas induces cleavage of the GrpL/Gads adaptor and desensitization of antigen receptor signaling

The balance between cell survival and cell death is critical for normal lymphoid development. This balance is maintained by signals through lymphocyte antigen receptors and death receptors such as CD95/Fas. In some cells, ligating the B cell antigen receptor can protect the cell from apoptosis induced by CD95. Here we report that ligation of CD95 inhibits antigen receptor-mediated signaling. Pretreating CD40-stimulated tonsillar B cells with anti-CD95 abolished B cell antigen receptor-mediated calcium mobilization. Furthermore, CD95 ligation led to the caspase-dependent inhibition of antigen receptor-induced calcium mobilization and to the activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways in B and T cell lines. A target of CD95-mediated caspase 3-like activity early in the apoptotic process is the adaptor protein GrpL/Gads. GrpL constitutively interacts with SLP-76 via its C-terminal SH3 domain to regulate transcription factors such as NF-AT. Cleavage of GrpL removes the C-terminal SH3 domain so that it is no longer capable of recruiting SLP-76 to the membrane. Transfection of a truncated form of GrpL into Jurkat T cells blocked T cell antigen receptor-induced activation of NF-AT. These results suggest that CD95 signaling can desensitize antigen receptors, in part via cleavage of the GrpL adaptor.