TAC3/TACR3 Mutations Reveal Preferential Activation of Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone Release by Neurokinin B in Neonatal Life Followed by Reversal in Adulthood

Context: Mutations in TAC3 and TACR3 (encoding neurokinin B and its receptor) have been identified in Turkish patients with idiopathic hypogonadotropic hypogonadism (IHH), but broader populations have not yet been tested and genotype-phenotype correlations have not been established. Objective: A broad cohort of normosmic IHH probands was screened for mutations in TAC3/TACR3 to evaluate the prevalence of such mutations and define the genotype/phenotype relationships. Design and Setting: The study consisted of sequencing of TAC3/TACR3, in vitro functional assays, and neuroendocrine phenotyping conducted in tertiary care centers worldwide. Patients or Other Participants: 345 probands, 18 family members, and 292 controls were studied. Intervention: Reproductive phenotypes throughout reproductive life and before and after therapy were examined. Main Outcome Measure: Rare sequence variants in TAC3/TACR3 were detected. Results: In TACR3, 19 probands harbored 13 distinct coding sequence rare nucleotide variants [three nonsense mutations, six nonsynonymous, four synonymous (one predicted to affect splicing)]. In TAC3, one homozygous single base pair deletion was identified, resulting in complete loss of the neurokinin B decapeptide. Phenotypic information was available on 16 males and seven females with coding sequence variants in TACR3/TAC3. Of the 16 males, 15 had microphallus; none of the females had spontaneous thelarche. Seven of the 16 males and five of the seven females were assessed after discontinuation of therapy; six of the seven males and four of the five females demonstrated evidence for reversibility of their hypogonadotropism. Conclusions: Mutations in the neurokinin B pathway are relatively common as causes of hypogonadism. Although the neurokinin B pathway appears essential during early sexual development, its importance in sustaining the integrity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis appears attenuated over time. (J Clin Endocrinol Metab 95: 2857-2867, 2010)

Tetrasomy 8 in a patient with chronic lymphocytic leukemia

We report a case of a 47-year-old man diagnosed with chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) with two extra copies of chromosome 8. Classical cytogenetic analysis by the immunostimulatory combination of DSP30 and interleukin 2 showed tetrasomy of chromosome 8 in 60% of the metaphase cells (48,XY,+8,+8[12]/46,XY[8]). Spectral karyotype analysis confirmed the abnormality previously seen by G banding. Additionally, interphase fluorescence in situ hybridization using an LSI CEP 8 probe performed on peripheral blood cells without any stimulant agent showed tetrasomy of chromosome 8 in 54% of analyzed cells (108 of 200). To our knowledge, tetrasomy 8 as the sole chromosomal abnormality in CLL has not been previously described. The prognostic significance of tetrasomy 8 in CLL remains to be elucidated. However, the patient has been followed up in the outpatient hospital since 2004 without any therapeutic intervention and has so far remained stable. (C) 2010 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Population pharmacokinetics of lamotrigine

The present study estimated the population pharmacokinetics of lamotrigine in patients receiving oral lamotrigine therapy with drug concentration monitoring, and determined intersubject and intrasubject variability. A total of 129 patients were analyzed from two clinical sites. Of these, 124 patients provided spare data (198 concentration-time points); nine patients (four from a previous group plus five from the current group) provided rich data (431 points). The population analysis was conducted using P-PHARM (TM) (SIMED Scientific Software, Cedex, France), a nonlinear mixed-effect modeling program. A single exponential elimination model (first-order absorption) with heteroscedastic weighting was used. Apparent clearance (CL/F) and volume of distribution (V/F) were the pharmacokinetic parameters estimated. Covariate analysis was performed to determine which factors explained any of the variability associated with lamotrigine clearance. Population estimates of CL/F and V/F for lamotrigine generated in the final model were 2.14 +/- 0.81 L/h and 78.1 +/- 5.1 L/kg. Intersubject and intrasubject variability for clearance was 38% and 38%, respectively. The covariates of concomitant valproate and phenytoin therapy accounted for 42% of the intersubject variability of clearance. Age, gender, clinic site, and other concomitant antiepileptic drugs did not influence clearance. This study of the population pharmacokinetics of lamotrigine in patients using the drug clinically provides useful data and should lead to better dosage individualization for lamotrigine.

Population pharmacokinetics of tacrolimus in children who receive cut-down or full liver transplants

Background. The aim of this study was to investigate the population pharmacokinetics of tacrolimus in pediatric liver transplant recipients and to identify factors that may explain pharmacokinetic variability. Methods. Data were collected retrospectively from 35 children who received oral immunosuppressant therapy with tacrolimus. Maximum likelihood estimates were sought for the typical values of apparent clearance (CL/F) and apparent volume of distribution (V/F) with the program NONMEM. Factors screened for influence on the pharmacokinetic parameters were weight, age, gender, postoperative day, days since commencing tacrolimus therapy, transplant type (whole child liver or cut-down adult liver), liver function tests (bilirubin, alkaline phosphatase [ALP], aspartate aminotransferase [AST], gamma -glutamyl transferase [GGT], alanine aminotransferase [ALT]), creatinine clearance, hematocrit, corticosteroid dose, and concurrent therapy with metabolic inducers and inhibitors of tacrolimus. Results. No clear correlation existed between tacrolimus dosage and blood concentrations (r(2) =0.003). Transplant type, age, and liver function test values were the most important factors (P

Single institution outcomes of treatment of severe aplastic anaemia

Background: In severe aplastic anaemia, the treatment of choice for young patients with a human leucocyte antigen-matched sibling is now established as allogeneic bone marrow transplantation (BMT). In older patients and in those without a matched sibling donor, immunosuppressive therapy is the usual first option. 'Alternative' marrow donors are emerging as an option for those without a matched sibling donor. Aims: To review 10 years of local experience in treating severe aplastic anaemia with BMT and immunosuppressive therapy with emphasis on long-term outcomes. Methods: A retrospective analysis was performed of all patients with severe aplastic anaemia presenting to the Royal Brisbane and Royal Children's Hos- pitals between 1989 and 1999. Data were abstracted regarding patient demographics, pretreatment characteristics and outcome measures, including response rates, overall survival and long-term complications. Results: Twenty-seven consecutive patients were identified, 12 treated with immunosuppression alone and 15 with BMT. In these two groups, transfusion independence was attained in 25% and 100%, respectively, with overall survival being 36% and 100%, respectively. Those treated with immunosuppression were significantly older (median 41.5 versus 22 years, P = 0.008). Long-term survivors of either treatment had extremely low morbidity. Three patients carried pregnancies to term post-transplant. Three patients received alternative donor BMT with correspondingly excellent survival. Conclusions: Patients treated with allogeneic BMT for severe aplastic anaemia enjoyed extremely good long-term survival and minimal morbidity. Patients treated with immunosuppressive therapy had a poorer outcome reflecting their older age and different usage of therapies over the past decade. Optimal treatment strategies for severe aplastic anaemia remain to be determined.

Kunjin virus replicon vectors for human immunodeficiency virus vaccine development

We have previously demonstrated the ability of the vaccine vectors based on replicon RNA of the Australian flavivirus Kunjin (KUN) to induce protective antiviral and anticancer CD8(+) T-cell responses using murine polyepitope as a model immunogen (I. Anraku, T. J. Harvey, R. Linedale, J. Gardner, D. Harrich, A. Suhrbier, and A. A. Khromykh, J. Virol. 76:3791-3799, 2002). Here we showed that immunization of BALB/c mice with KUN replicons encoding HIV-1 Gag antigen resulted in induction of both Gag-specific antibody and protective Gag-specific CD8(+) T-cell responses. Two immunizations with KUNgag replicons in the form of virus-like particles (VLPs) induced anti-Gag antibodies with titers of greater than or equal to1:10,000. Immunization with KUNgag replicons delivered as plasmid DNA, naked RNA, or VLPs induced potent Gag-specific CD8(+) T-cell responses, with one immunization of KUNgag VLPs inducing 4.5-fold-more CD8(+) T cells than the number induced after immunization with recombinant vaccinia virus carrying the gag gene (rVVgag). Two immunizations with KUNgag VLPs also provided significant protection against challenge with rVVgag. Importantly, KUN replicon VLP vaccinations induced long-lasting immune responses with CD8(+) T cells able to secrete gamma interferon and to mediate protection 6 to 10 months after immunization. These results illustrate the potential value of the KUN replicon vectors for human immunodeficiency virus vaccine design.

3: Rehabilitation principles for treating chronic musculoskeletal injuries

Evaluation of patients for rehabilitation after musculoskeletal injury involves identifying, grading and assessing the injury and its impact on the patient's normal activities. Management is guided by a multidisciplinary team, comprising the patient, doctor and physical therapist, with other health professionals recruited as required. Parallel interventions involving the various team members are specified in a customised management plan. The key component of the plan is active mobilisation utilising strengthening, flexibility and endurance exercise programs. Passive physical treatments (heat, ice, and manual therapy), as well as drug therapy and psychological interventions, are used as adjunctive therapy. Biomechanical devices or techniques (eg, orthotic devices) may also be helpful. Coexisting conditions such as depression and drug dependence are treated at the same time as the injury. Effective team communication, simulated environmental testing and, for those employed, contact with the employer facilitate a staged return to normal living, sports and occupational activities.

Coorte retrospectiva de crianças e adolescentes, infectados pelo HIV por transmissão vertical, no Espírito Santo : comorbidades, mortalidade e sobrevida

INTRODUÇÃO: O diagnóstico e terapia antirretroviral precoce em lactentes, infectados pelo HIV por transmissão vertical, reduz a progressão do HIV e comorbidades que podem levar ao óbito. OBJETIVO GERAL: Avaliar o perfil clínico e epidemiológico em uma coorte de crianças e adolescentes com aids, infectados por transmissão vertical do HIV, por um período de onze anos, atendidos em hospital estadual de referência, no Estado do Espírito Santo. OBJETIVOS ESPECÍFICOS: 1. Descrever a frequência das comorbidades diagnosticadas após o diagnóstico de HIV e verificar sua distribuição, segundo dados demográficos, epidemiológicos e clínicos, e segundo a classificação dos casos em uma coorte de crianças e adolescentes com aids. 2. Avaliar os fatores preditores de risco de progressão para aids e óbito e causas de morte. 3. Estimar a taxa de sobrevida. MÉTODOS: Coorte retrospectiva de crianças e adolescentes infectados pelo HIV, por transmissão vertical (TV), atendidas no Serviço de Atendimento Especializado (SAE) do Hospital Infantil Nossa Senhora da Glória (HINSG), de janeiro 2001 a dezembro 2011, em Vitória – ES/Brasil. A coleta de dados foi realizada em protocolo específico padronizado, e dados sobre as comorbidades, mortalidade e sua causa básica foram obtidos dos prontuários médicos, da Declaração de Óbito e do banco de dados SIM (Sistema de Informação sobre Mortalidade). O diagnóstico de aids e comorbidades foi de acordo com CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)/1994. RESULTADOS: Foi arrolado um total de 177 pacientes, sendo 97 (55%) do sexo feminino; 60 (34%) eram menores de1ano, 67 (38%) tinham de 1 a 5 anos e 50 (28%) tinham6 anos ou mais de idade no ingresso ao serviço. A mediana das idades na admissão foi de 30 meses (Intervalo Interquartis (IIQ) 25-75%: 5-72 meses). Em relação à classificação clínico-imunológica, 146 pacientes (82,5%) apresentavam a forma moderada/grave no momento do ingresso no Serviço e 26 (14,7%) foram a óbito. Os sinais clínicos mais frequentes foram hepatomegalia (81,62%), esplenomegalia (63,8%), linfadenopatia (68,4%) e febre persistente (32,8%). As comorbidades mais frequentes foram anemia (67,2%), pneumonia/sepses/meningite - primeiro episódio (64,2%), OMA/sinusite recorrente (55,4%), infecções bacterianas graves recorrentes (47,4%) e dermatites (43,1%). Encontrou-se associação entre classificação clínico-imunológica grave e ingresso no serviço com menos de um ano de idade com algumas comorbidades (p<0,001). O tempo total do acompanhamento dos pacientes foi de 11 anos, com mediana de cinco anos (IIQ: 2-8 anos). No final do período estudado, 132 (74,6%) pacientes estavam em acompanhamento, 11 (6,2%) foram transferidos para outros serviços eem oito (4,5%) houve perda de seguimento. Quanto ao óbito, observou-se uma redução de casos ao longo do tempo. A maioria dos pacientes que foram a óbito deu entrada no serviço com classificação clínica imunológica grave (77%-20/26), apresentava anemia moderada/grave e estava em uso de terapia antirretroviral (TARV) por mais de 3 meses (17/24-71%).Os principais fatores de risco para o óbito foram: faixa etária < 1 ano (p=0,005), pneumonia por P. jirovecii (p=0,010), percentual de linfócito T CD4+ nadir <15% (p=0,012), anemia crônica (p=0,012), estágio clínico imunológico grave (p=0,003), infecções bacterianas graves recorrentes(p=0,003) e tuberculose (p=0,037). Ter iniciado TARV antes dos 6 meses de vida (diagnóstico e tratamento precoces) foi associado à sobrevida(OR 2,86, [Intervalo de Confiança (IC) de 95%: 1,12-7,25] p=0,027).O principal diagnóstico registrado para os óbitos foram infecções bacterianas graves (12/21-57%). Foi encontrada uma elevada taxa de sobrevida, com 85,3% de probabilidade de sobrevivência por mais de 10 anos (IC 95% 9,6-10,7). CONCLUSÕES: A maioria das crianças teve diagnóstico tardio da infecção pelo HIV aumentando o risco de progressão para aids e óbito por falta de tratamento precoce. A tendência de mortalidade das crianças infectadas pelo HIV se mostrou uma constante com queda nos dois últimos anos do estudo, e ainda persistem as infecções bacterianas como maior causa de óbito. Portanto, melhoria no cuidado pré-natal e acompanhamento pediátrico com vista ao diagnóstico precoce das crianças infectadas verticalmente devem fazer parte do cuidado integral à criança com aids, o que poderia reduzir a mortalidade destas crianças.

Epidemiological aspects of centipede (Scolopendromorphae: Chilopoda) bites registered in Greater S. Paulo, SP, Brazil

INTRODUCTION: The lack of basic knowledge on venomous arthropods and the benignity of the clinical manifestations contribute to the centipede bite victims' not being taken to a treatment reference center, leading to underestimation of the number of cases and minimizing the possibility of a broader epidemiological view. An inventory of the centipede bite occurrences in Greater S. Paulo, Brazil, and the therapeutic methods employed, by the main Brazilian medical center for the notification of poisoning by venomous animals, is presented. METHOD: All patient cards of the period 1980-1989 have been checked as to place, month and time of occurrence; sex, age, affected part of the body, signs and symptoms have been observed, as well as the therapeutic methods employed. The centipedes that caused the accidents were identified at the Arthropods Laboratory. RESULTS: It was registered 216 accidents, with a 69% predominance of the Greater S. Paulo and in only 63% of the cases (136) was the agent brought in by the victim for identification. The genera most frequently represented were Cryptops (58%), Otostigmus (33%) and Scolopendra (4%). Of the 136 cases, 87% showed erythema, edema, hemorrhage, burns, cephalalgia, and intense pain. There was a predominance of accidents in the warm rainy season, in the morning and for females between 21 and 60 years of age. Hands and feet were the parts of the body most affected. The benign evolution of the clinical picture (54%) made therapeutical treatment unnecessary. Only the victims of Scolopendra and Otostigmus (46%) were medicated with anesthetics (51%), analgesics (25%), antihistamines and cortisone (24%). CONCLUSION: The reproductive period of the centipedes, associated with their sinanthropic habits, contributes to the greater incidence of accidents in urban areas in the warm rainy season. Only patients bitten by Scolopendra and Otostigmus require therapeutical treatment.

Fatores determinantes do (in)sucesso de clínicas/gabinetes particulares com a valência de terapia da fala nos distritos de Porto e Aveiro

A presente dissertação apresenta o resultado de uma pesquisa realizada, através da recolha de dados, nos distritos do Porto e Aveiro, onde foram analisados os fatores determinantes do (in)sucesso estratégico de clínicas/gabinetes (CG) particulares com a valência de terapia da fala (TF). Inicia com a apresentação de algumas considerações conceptuais relativas à empresa, organização e inovação. De seguida, são descritos os principais passos a dar em Portugal para a constituição de uma empresa e é feita uma abordagem aos temas da viabilidade estratégica de um projeto e do conceito de plano de negócios. A parte teórica do presente projeto de investigação encerra com os fatores de sucesso e insucesso empresarial descritos na literatura. Neste trabalho, procura-se analisar as principais determinantes de sobrevivência das novas empresas ligadas à área da TF. Para tal, procedeu-se à recolha de dados junto de proprietários e/ou gestores de CG particulares com TF, nos distritos de Porto e Aveiro, selecionados a partir da base de dados da Entidade Reguladora da Saúde (ERS), das Páginas Amarelas Online e da Internet com as palavraschave: “clínicas, gabinetes, terapia da fala”. Os resultados estatisticamente tratados e analisados evidenciam a importância dos seguintes fatores como estatisticamente significativos para o sucesso de uma CG privada com TF nos distritos de Porto e Aveiro: maior antiguidade da CG, maior número de utentes, de concorrentes e de TF a trabalhar, assim como a realização de rastreios na área da TF. Fatores como: proprietário com formação na área da gestão, maior número de valências, publicidade e acessibilidades na CG, parecem contribuir para o aumento das hipóteses de sobrevivência de CG particulares com TF nos distritos de Porto e Aveiro, ainda que não sejam estatisticamente significativos. Em contrapartida, a falta de um plano de negócios parece ser um fator que influencia o insucesso destas CG.

Da infância para o mundo: as leituras que educam para os valores e formam o carácter

Neste artigo pretende-se reflectir sobre a importância da leitura de contos para o desenvolvimento moral e ético na infância. Partindo da confusão entre valores e opiniões e das dificuldades em educar para os valores num mundo anti-ético, comenta-se a relevância do ritual da ―Hora do Conto‖ – tanto à hora de dormir como durante o dia – e da terapia através dos contos. Defende-se ainda que a reflexão e a consciencialização que advêm da leitura de alguns contos – de que se sugerem exemplos – permitem a aquisição de referências sólidas no âmbito duma ―ética de salvaguarda‖: de si, dos outros, da natureza e do mundo.

Prática baseada na evidência em terapia da fala

Mestrado em Gestão e Avaliação em Tecnologias da Saúde

Qualidade de vida, necessidades terapêuticas e preocupações de pais de crianças com necessidades especiais: abordagem centrada na família

Mestrado em Fisioterapia

Aspectos clínicos e sorológicos de 47 pacientes com paracoccidioidomicose tratados pela anfotericina B

In the present study, clinic and serologic aspects of 47 paracoccidioidomycosis patients were reviewed. The clinic-radiologie-laboratorial data of each patient were obtained from the medical chart before, during and after therapy with Amphotericin B. The age of the patients ranged between 13 to 50 years; the ratio male: female was 10:1. The most frequently associated diseases were alcoholism and tabagism; tuberculosis was present in 14.2% of the cases. Most patients came from Botucatu of adjacent towns (central area of the State of São Paulo). Cough with sputum production, dyspnea and anorexia were the most frequent clinic manifestations. All 47 patients, but 5 presented pulmonary involvement which showed the radiologic pattern of interstitial exudate nodular type and fibrocicatritial lesions in 85.7%. There was associated emphysema in 37.7% of the patients. Blood urea, creatinin and kaliemia increased during therapy with Amphotericin B. Clinic-laboratorial follow-up showed electrocardiographic changes in 13, hypertension in 9 and hyperreactivity in Thorn test in 1 patient. Complement fixation was the best serologic test for monitoring patients with paracoccidioidomycosis. Incomplete dosage of Amphotericin B led to therapeutic ineffectivenes.

Insuficiência cardíaca. Uma epidemia do século XXI. O desafio do diagnóstico

Resumo: A insuficiência cardíaca, já denominada de epidemia do século XXI é, de entre as doenças cardiovasculares, a única cuja incidência e prevalência continuam a crescer, apesar dos imensos progressos feitos na área da terapêutica nas últimas duas décadas. Caracteriza-se por elevada mortalidade – superior à do conjunto das neoplasias malignas -, grande morbilidade, consumo de recursos e custos exuberantes. É um dos problemas mais graves de Saúde Pública dos Países industrializados, cujo manejo deverá constituir uma prioridade para os Serviços Nacionais de Saúde. Todavia, o reconhecimento universal da gravidade desta situação tem originado poucas soluções concretas para conter a epidemia, cujo protagonismo não cessa de aumentar. É possível hoje prevenir, tratar de forma a retardar a evolução da doença ou até revertê-la, desde que diagnosticada atempadamente. Qualquer atitude nestas áreas pressupõe um diagnóstico correcto, precoce e completo da situação, sem o qual não haverá um tratamento adequado. O diagnóstico tem preocupado bem menos os investigadores e os clínicos que a terapêutica. É, contudo, comprovadamente difícil a todos os níveis dos Cuidados de Saúde e constitui certamente a primeira barreira ao controlo da situação. OBJECTIVOS: À luz do conhecimento actual e da nossa própria experiência, propusemo-nos analisar os problemas do diagnóstico da insuficiência cardíaca e a forma como eles se repercutem no manejo da doença e na saúde das populações. Foram objectivos desta dissertação avaliar como a evolução dos modelos de insuficiência cardíaca e de disfunção ventricular influenciaram a definição e os critérios de diagnóstico da doença ao longo do tempo; as consequências geradas pela falta de consenso quanto à definição e aos critérios de diagnóstico nas diferentes fases de evolução desta entidade; discutir o papel da clínica e dos exames complementares no diagnóstico da síndrome e nas estratégias de rastreio da disfunção cardíaca; apontar alguns caminhos e possíveis metodologias para o manejo da doença de forma a que possamos, no futuro, diagnosticar melhor para melhor prevenir, tratar e conter a epidemia. METODOLOGIA: A metodologia utilizada neste trabalho decorre directamente da actividade assistencial diária e da investigação clínica gerada no interesse pelos problemas com que nos deparámos, ao longo dos anos, na área da insuficiência cardíaca. A par com o estudo epidemiológico da insuficiência cardíaca em Portugal, desenvolvemos um protocolo original para a avaliação da qualidade do diagnóstico no ambulatório e do papel da clínica e dos diferentes exames complementares no diagnóstico da síndrome. Avaliámos os problemas do diagnóstico da insuficiência cardíaca em meio hospitalar através de um inquérito endereçado aos Directores de Serviço, pelo Grupo de Estudo de Insuficiência Cardíaca da Sociedade Portuguesa de Cardiologia. Analisámos a qualidade do diagnóstico da insuficiência cardíaca codificado à data da alta hospitalar. Após a criação de uma área específica, vocacionada para o internamento de doentes com insuficiência cardíaca, avaliámos o seu impacto no diagnóstico e tratamento da síndrome. Também testámos o desempenho dos peptídeos natriuréticos no diagnóstico dos diferentes tipos de insuficiência cardíaca sintomática, em meio hospitalar. Os resultados parciais da investigação clínica foram sendo comunicados à comunidade científica e publicados em revistas da especialidade. Discutimos, nesta dissertação, os artigos publicados e em publicação, à luz do estado actual da arte na área do diagnóstico. Reflectimos sobre as consequências das dificuldades no diagnóstico da insuficiência cardíaca e apontamos possíveis caminhos para implementar o rastreio. RESULTADOS: Em 1982, muito no início da nossa actividade clínica, cientes da complexidade da insuficiência cardíaca e do desafio que a sua abordagem constituía para os clínicos,empenhávamo-nos no desenvolvimento de uma classificação fisiopatológica original da insuficiência cardíaca, que foi tema para a Tese de Doutoramento da Professora Doutora Fátima Ceia em 1989. sistemático da doença, melhorar os cuidados prestados aos doentes e diminuir os custos envolvidos no manejo da síndrome. No artigo 1 – Insuficiência cardíaca: novos conceitos fisiopatológicos e implicações terapêuticas – publicado em 1984, descrevemos, à luz do conhecimento da época, a insuficiência cardíaca como uma doença sistémica, resultado da interacção entre os múltiplos mecanismos de compensação da disfunção cardíaca. Desenvolvemos “uma classificação fisiopatológica com implicações terapêuticas” original, onde delineámos os diferentes tipos de insuficiência cardíaca, as suas principais características clínicas, hemodinâmicas, funcionais e anatómicas e propuzemos terapêutica individualizada de acordo com a definição e o diagnóstico dos diferentes tipos de insuficiência cardíaca. Em 1994, no artigo 2 – A insuficiência cardíaca e o clínico no fim do século vinte – salientamos a forma como os diferentes mecanismos de compensação interagem, influenciam a evolução da doença no tempo, produzem síndromes diferentes e fundamentam a actuação terapêutica. Discutimos a evolução da definição da doença de acordo com o melhor conhecimento da sua fisiopatologia e etiopatogenia. Sublinhamos a necessidade de desenvolver estratégias para a prevenção da doença, o diagnóstico precoce e o tratamento atempado. Ainda no primeiro capítulo: Insuficiência cardíaca: da fisiopatologia à clínica – um modelo em constante evolução – revisitámos os sucessivos modelos fisiopatológicos da insuficiência cardíaca: cardio-renal, hemodinâmico, neuro-hormonal e imuno-inflamatório e a sua influência na definição da síndrome e nos critérios de diagnóstico. Analisámos a evolução do conceito de disfunção cardíaca que, à dicotomia da síndrome em insuficiência cardíaca por disfunção sistólica e com função sistólica normal, contrapõe a teoria do contínuo na evolução da doença. Esta última, mais recente, defende que estas duas formas de apresentação não são mais do que fenótipos diferentes, extremos, de uma mesma doença que origina vários cenários, desde a insuficiência cardíaca com fracção de ejecção normal à disfunção sistólica ventricular grave No capítulo II - O diagnóstico da insuficiência cardíaca: problemas e consequências previsíveis - analisamos as consequências da falta de critérios de diagnóstico consensuais para a insuficiência cardíaca em todo o seu espectro, ao longo do tempo. As dificuldades de diagnóstico reflectem-se nos resultados resultados dos estudos epidemiológicos. Vivemos essa dificuldade quando necessitámos de definir critérios de diagnóstico exequíveis no ambulatório, abrangendo todos os tipos de insuficiência cardíaca e de acordo com as Recomendações, para o programa EPICA –EPidemiologia da Insuficiência Cardíaca e Aprendizagem – desenhado para os Cuidados Primários de Saúde. No artigo 3 – Epidemiologia da insuficiência cardíaca e Aprendizagem – desenhado para os Cuidados Primários de Saúde. No artigo 3 – Epidemiologia da insuficiência cardíaca – discutimos as consequências dos grandes estudos epidemiológicos terem adoptado ao longo dos anos definições e critérios de diagnóstico muito variáveis,conduzindo a valores de prevalência e incidência da doença por vezes também muito diferentes. O problema agudiza-se quando se fala em insuficiência cardíaca com fracção de ejecção normal ou com disfunção diastólica, ou ainda em rastreio da disfunção cardíaca assintomática, situações para as quais tem sido extraordinariamente difícil consensualizar critérios de diagnóstico e estratégias. É notória a ausência de grandes estudos de terapêutica no contexto da insuficiência cardíaca com fracção de ejecção normal ou com disfunção diastólica que, à falta de Recomendações terapêuticas baseadas na evidência, continuamos a tratar de acordo com a fisiopatologia. Assim, discrepâncias provavelmente mais relacionadas com os critérios de diagnóstico utilizados do que com diferenças reais entre as populações, dificultam o nosso entendimento quanto ao real peso da insuficiência cardíaca e da disfunção ventricular assintomática. Também comprometerão certamente a correcta alocação de recursos para necessidades que, na realidade, conhecemos mal. O artigo 4 – Prévalence de l’ insuffisance cardiaque au Portugal – apresenta o desenho dos estudos EPICA e EPICA-RAM. O EPICA foi dos primeiros estudos a avaliar a prevalência da insuficiência cardíaca sintomática global, na comunidade, de acordo com os critérios da Sociedade Europeia de Cardiologia. Definimos critérios ecocardiográficos de disfunção cardíaca para todos os tipos de insuficiência cardíaca, nomeadamente para as situações com fracção de ejecção normal, numa época em que ainda não havia na literatura Recomendações consensuais. No artigo 5 – Prevalence of chronic heart failure in Southwestern Europe: the EPICA study - relatamos a prevalência da insuficiência cardíaca em Portugal con-supra-diagnosticada em 8,3%. A codificação hospitalar falhou uma percentagem significativa de doentes com insuficiência cardíaca, minimizando assim o peso da síndrome, com eventual repercussão na alocação dos recursos necessários ao seu manejo no hospital e para a indispensável interface com os Cuidados Primários de Saúde. No artigo 8 – Tratamento da insuficiência cardíaca em hospitais portugueses: resultados de um inquérito – todos os inquiridos relataram dificuldades no diagnóstico atempado da insuficiência cardíaca. Os Directores dos Serviços de Cardiologia reclamam mais recursos humanos vocacionados e estruturas hospitalares especializadas no diagnóstico e tratamento da síndrome, enquanto que os Directores dos Serviços de Medicina necessitam de facilidades de acesso aos métodos complementares de diagnóstico como a ecocardiografia e de maior apoio do Cardiologista. As dificuldades no diagnóstico da insuficiência cardíaca,a todos os níveis de cuidados, acarretam assim consequências epidemiológicas, sócio-económicas e financeiras nefastas para o doente individual, a planificação do Sistema Nacional de Saúde e para a Saúde Pública No capítulo III relembramos a importância do diagnóstico completo da insuficiência cardíaca que, para além do diagnóstico sindromático e anatomo-funcional, deverá incluir o diagnóstico etiológico, e das comorbilidades. Muitos destes aspectos podem comprometer a interpretação dos exames complementares de diagnóstico e, não raramente, as indicações dos fármacos que influenciam a sobrevida dos doentes, a estratégia terapêutica e o prognóstico da síndrome Conscientes das dificuldades no diagnóstico da insuficiência cardíaca nos Cuidados Primários de Saúde e do papel preponderante dos especialistas em Medicina Familiar na contenção da epidemia, propusemo-nos, como objectivos secundários do estudo EPICA (artigo 5), investigar a acuidade diagnóstica dos instrumentos à disposição daqueles colegas, na prática clínica diária: a clínica e os exames complementares de diagnóstico de primeira linha. O artigo 10 – The diagnosis of heart failure in primary care: value of symptoms and signs - documenta o valor limitado dos sinais, sintomas e dados da história pregressa, quando usados isoladamente, no diagnóstico da síndrome. Todos têm baixa sensibilidade para o diagnóstico. Têm maior valor preditor os associados às situações congestivas, mais graves: a dispneia paroxística nocturna (LR 35,5), a ortopneia (LR 39,1), a dificuldade respiratória para a marcha em plano horizontal (LR 25,8), o ingurgitamento jugular > 6 cm com hepatomegalia e edema dos membros inferiores (LR 130,3), que estão raramente presentes na população de insuficientes cardíacos do ambulatório (sensibilidade <10%). O galope ventricular (LR 30,0), a taquicardia >110ppm (LR 26,7) e os fervores crepitantes (LR 23,3) também estão associados ao diagnóstico, mas são também pouco frequentes na população estudada (sensibilidade < 36%). São ainda preditores do diagnóstico o tratamento prévio com digitálico (LR 24,9) e/ou com diurético (LR 10,6), uma história prévia de edema pulmonar agudo (LR 54,2) ou de doença das artérias coronárias (LR 7,1). No artigo 11- Aetiology, comorbidity and drug therapy of chronic heart failure in the real world: the EPICA substudy - confirmámos que a hipertensão arterial é, de entre os factores de risco e/ou etiológicos, a causa mais frequente de insuficiência cardíaca no ambulatório, em Portugal (80%). Trinta e nove por cento dos doentes do estudo EPICA têm história de doença coronária e 15% de fibrilhação auricular. Quantificámos a comorbilidade e analisámos a sua potencial influência no facto da prescrição terapêutica estar aquém das Recomendações internacionais em Portugal, como aliás em toda a Europa. No artigo 12 - The value of electrocardiogram and X-ray for confirming or refuting a suspected diagnosis of heart failure in the community – demonstrámos que os dados do ECG e do RX do tórax não permitem predizer o diagnóstico de insuficiência cardíaca na comunidade; 25% dos doentes com insuficiência cardíaca objectiva tinham ECG ou RX do tórax normais. No artigo 13 - Evaluation of the performance and concordance of clinical questionnaires for heart failure in primary care - comparámos sete questionários e sistemas de pontuação habitualmente utilizados nos grandes estudos, para o diagnóstico da insuficiência cardíaca. Mostraram ter, na sua maioria, uma concordância razoável ou boa entre si. Foram muito específicos (>90%) mas pouco sensíveis. Aumentaram a probabilidade do diagnóstico de 4,3% pré-teste para 25 a 30% pós-teste. Revelaram-se um melhor instrumento para a exclusão da causa cardíaca dos sintomas do que para o diagnóstico da síndrome O artigo 14 - Epidemiologia da insuficiência cardíaca em Portugal continental: novos dados do estudo EPICA – compara as características dos doentes com suspeita clínica, não comprovada, de insuficiência cardíaca (falsos positivos), com os casos de insuficiência cardíaca. Os primeiros são mais idosos, mais mulheres, com mais excesso de peso, menos história de doença das artérias coronárias. Confirma ainda que a clínica, o ECG e o Rx tórax não permitem diferenciar os doentes com insuficiência cardíaca por disfunção sistólica ventricular daqueles que têm fracção de ejecção normal. Perante o desafio do diagnóstico da insuficiência cardíaca com fracção de ejecção normal, as dificuldades de acesso à ecocardiografia na comunidade e os custos acrescidos do exame, pretendemos averiguar no artigo 15 - The diagnostic challenge of heart failure with preserved systolic function in primary care setting: an EPICA-RAM sub-study - o desempenho do BNP no rastreio dos doentes com a suspeita clínica do diagnóstico, a enviar para ecocardiografia. Testámos o desempenho do teste como preditor do diagnóstico clínico da insuficiência cardíaca com função sistólica preservada, bem como dos indicadores ecocardiográficos de disfunção diastólica utilizados no estudo: dilatação da aurícula esquerda e hipertrofia ventricular esquerda. O teste apenas foi bom preditor da dilatação da aurícula esquerda, mas não do diagnóstico clínico deste tipo de insuficiência cardíaca, nem da presença de hipertrofia ventricular esquerda diagnosticada por ecocardiografia (área abaixo da curva ROC: 0,89, 0,56 e 0,54 respectivamente). Concluímos que, isoladamente, não será um bom método de rastreio da doença na comunidade, nem poderá substituir o ecocardiograma no doente com a suspeita clínica do diagnóstico, pelo menos nas fases precoces, pouco sintomáticas da doença. Estudámos e comparámos o desempenho dos peptídeos natriuréticos do tipo B - BNP e NT-proBNP - no diagnóstico da insuficiência cardíaca sintomática, por disfunção sistólica e com fracção de ejecção preservada, no internamento hospitalar. Avaliámos doentes e voluntários normais, de forma a estabelecermos os cut-off do nosso laboratório. Relatámos os resultados deste trabalho no artigo 16 – Valor comparativo do BNP e do NT-proBNP no diagnóstico da insuficiência cardía-ca. Ambos os testes tiveram um excelente desempenho no diagnóstico da insuficiência cardíaca sintomática, em meio hospitalar, mas nenhum foi capaz de diferenciar a insuficiência cardíaca com disfunção sistólica ventricular da que tem fracção de ejecção normal Revimos, à luz do conhecimento actual, o desempenho dos diferentes exames complementares, nomeadamente dos peptídeos natriuréticos e da ecocardiografia, no diagnóstico da insuficiência cardíaca sintomática global, por disfunção sistólica ventricular e com fracção de ejecção normal e discutimos os critérios mais recentemente propostos e as últimas Recomendações internacionais Discutimos as estratégias propostas para o rastreio da disfunção ventricular assintomática que é, na comunidade, pelo menos tão frequente quanto a sintomática. Existe evidência de que tratar precocemente a disfunção ventricular sistólica assintomática se traduz em benefícios reais no prognóstico e, tal como no caso da disfunção sistólica sintomática, é custo-eficiente. Autilização do método padrão para o rastreio da disfunção cardíaca na população obrigaria à realização de ecocardiograma a todos os indivíduos, o que é técnica e economicamente incomportável. Vários estudos têm vindo a testar diversas estratégias alternativas, na procura de uma metodologia que seja, também ela, custo-eficiente. Os autores são unânimes no aspecto em que nenhum exame, quando avaliado isoladamente, foi útil para o rastreio da disfunção cardíaca. Contudo apontam para o ECG e/ou os peptídeos natriuréticos, integrados ou não em esquemas de pontuação clínica, como testes úteis para o pré-rastreio para ecocardiografia. Permitem diminuir os pedidos de ecocardiograma e os custos do rastreio, que se torna tão custo-efectivo quanto o do cancro da mama ou do colo do útero. Alguns autores preconizam ainda a avaliação qualitativa da disfunção cardíaca por ecocardiograma portátil, no contexto de ECG anómalo ou de peptídeo natriurético elevado, antes da referenciação para o ecocardiograma completo. Apontam esta estratégia como sendo a mais custo-eficiente para o rastreio da disfunção cardíaca. Finalmente, tecemos alguns comentários finais quanto a perspectivas de futuro para o manejo da insuficiência cardíaca. É premente estabelecer uma definição precisa e universal da síndrome e critérios de diagnóstico consensuais, claros, objectivos, simples e reprodutíveis para todo o espectro da insuficiência cardíaca, para que possamos num futuro próximo avaliar de forma correcta a extensão do problema, organizar cuidados médicos eficientes e acessíveis a todos e melhorar o prognóstico dos doentes, numa política imprescindível e inevitável de contenção dos custos. Perante os problemas de diagnóstico da síndrome no ambulatório, consideramos ser necessário implementar programas de formação continuada e facilitar o diálogo e a colaboração entre Cuidados Primários de Saúde e Unidades especializadas no manejo da doença, à imagem do que fizemos pontualmente aquando do programa EPICA e do que está a ser desenvolvido em vários países europeus e nos Estados Unidos da América, sob a forma de redes alargada de prestação de cuidados, para a insuficiência cardíaca. As clínicas de insuficiência cardíaca, a laborar sobretudo em meio hospitalar, já deram provas quanto à maior conformidade do diagnóstico (e tratamento) de acordo com as Recomendações, assim como na melhoria da qualidade de vida e sobrevida dos doentes. No artigo 17 - Implementar as Recomendações na prática clínica: benefícios de uma Unidade de Insuficiência Cardíaca Aguda - relatamos a nossa experiência quanto à melhoria da qualidade dos cuidados prestados, nas áreas do diagnóstico e tratamento, numa unidade funcional dedicada ao internamento dos doentes com insuficiência cardíaca aguda. Defendemos que estas áreas específicas de internamento se devem articular com outras,nomeadamente hospitais de dia de insuficiência cardíaca, podendo ou devendo até ser diferentes na sua estrutura e recursos, de acordo com as necessidades das populações no seio das quais são implementadas. Cabe-lhes um papel determinante na interacção com os Cuidados Primários de Saúde, na formação médica continuada e de outros profissionais de saúde e na recepção e orientação dos doentes referenciados para a especialidade.São ainda necessários esforços redobrados para a identificação e controlo dos factores de risco e para o estabelecimento de estratégias de rastreio da disfunção ventricular na comunidade. Tal é passível de ser feito e é custo-eficiente, mas exige a colaboração de técnicos de saúde, investigadores e poder político para avaliar das necessidades reais, implementar e controlar a qualidade destas estratégias, sem as quais não conseguiremos conter a epidemia. SUMMARY: Despite there has been substantial progress in the treatment of heart failure over the last several decades, it is the only cardiovascular disorder that continues to increase in both prevalence and incidence. Characterised by very poor survival and quality of life heart failure is responsible for among the highest healthcare costs for single conditions in developed countries. Heart failure is therefore becoming an increasing concern to healthcare worldwide and must be a priority to National Health Services. It is already called the epidemic of the 21 st century. A correct diagnosis is the cornerstone leading to effective management of the syndrome. An early, accurate and complete diagnosis has become crucial with the identification of therapies that can delay or reverse disease progression and improve both morbidity and mortality. Diagnostic methods may need to encompass screening strategies, as well as symptomatic case identification. Until now, investigation has been over focused on pharmacological treatment; relatively little work has been done on assessing diagnostic tools. This is actually a difficult condition to diagnose at all levels of care, and misdiagnosis must be the first barrier to the control of the epidemic. AIMS Considering current and up-dated knowledge and ourown experience we analyse the problems in diagnosing heart failure and cardiac dysfunction and how they affect patient’s clinical outcome and public health care. It was our aim to analyse how increasing knowledge about cardiac dysfunction influenced the concept of heart failure, its definition and diagnostic criteria; the problems resulting from the use of non consensual definitions and diagnostic criteria; the role of clinical data and diagnostic tests on the diagnosis of the syndrome and on the screening for cardiac dysfunction in the community; to discuss best strategies to enhance diagnostic management of heart failure in all its spectrum, in order to halt the epidemic in the near future. METHODS: The investigation on which the present dissertation is based was developed progressively, along the years, during our every-day clinical practice. Various original clinical investigations and review papers, related to challenges in heart failure management and especially to diagnosis, were presented in scientific meetings and/or published gradually as partial results were obtained. The EPICA Programme (epidemiology of heart failure and awareness), a large-scale epidemiological study on heart failure in Portugal, addressed as secondary endpoints, problems of heart failure misdiagnosis in primary care and the value of clinics and different diagnostic tests to confirme or refute the diagnosis of the syndrome suspected on clinical grounds. But problems on the diagnosis of heart failure are not confined to primary care. Therefore, under the auspices of the Working Group of Heart Failure of the Portuguese Society of Cardiology, a survey on the management of heart failure at hospital was addressed to the heads of Portuguese Cardiology and Internal Medicine Wards. Compliance with Guidelines on diagnosis and treatment of heart failure, perceived difficulties and requests to a better management of the syndrome were ascertained. We have then explored the validity of a coded diagnosis of heart failure at death/discharge from the Department of Medicine of S. Francisco Xavier Hospital, and the rate of misdiagnosis. Gains on compliance with Guidelines on the diagnosis and treatment of heart failure, before and after the implementation of an acute heart failure unit in this Department were assessed. We also compared the performance of type-B natriuretic peptides – BNP and NT-proBNP – on systolic and diastolic heart failure diagnosis, in order to implement the more adequate test. In this thesis we discuss our published papers against the state of the art on heart failure diagnosis, and actual consequences of misdiagnosing. We revisit the accuracy of the different diagnostic testes to a definite diagnosis of the disease. Finally we analyse the different ways of screening for cardiac TESE3 AF 6/9/08 12:25 PM Page 309 310 Summary dysfunction and the more cost-efficient strategies to enhance heart failure diagnosis and management. RESULTS Since 1982, at the very beginning of our clinical activity, already aware of the complexity of the management of heart failure, we were involved in the development of an original pathophysiological heart failure classification, theme of Professor Fátima Ceia Doctoral Thesis discussed in 1989. Paper 1 - Heart Failure. New pathophysiological approach to therapy – published in 1984, described heart failure as a systemic disease resulting from the interaction of the different compensatory mechanisms. We proposed a new dynamic, pathophysiological and aetiological approach to the diagnosis of heart failure syndromes, based on clinics and conventional non-invasive assessment with drug management implications. In 1994, in paper 2 – Heart failure and the physician - towards the XXI century – we discussed the way how the compensatory mechanisms interact, produce the different heart failure syndromes and affect the evolution of the disease. Changing definitions according to the knowledge of the pathophysiology of heart failure at that time were revisited. The need for a universally accepted definition leading to early and accurate diagnosis and treatment of the syndrome was pointed-out. We called for strategies to prevent heart failure. In an up-dated review titled: Heart failure: from pathophysiology to clinics – a model in constant evolution – we revisit the changing pathophysiological models of heart failure – cardio-renal, haemodynamic, neuro-hormonal and imuno-inflamatory models - and their influence on the definition of the syndrome. Traditional dicotomization of heart failure in systolic and diastolic dysfunction is discussed. Rather than being considered as separate diseases with a distinct pathophysiology, systolic and diastolic heart failure may be merely different clinical presentations within a phenotypic spectrum of one and the same disease. Implications for the definition and diagnosis of heart failure are self evident. In chapter II – The diagnosis of heart failure: problems and foreseeable consequences - we analyse epidemiological, clinical and financial consequences of non consensual definition and diagnostic criteria of heart failure for individual patients, Healthcare Systems and Public Health. Problems resulting from the absence of a universally accepted definition of heart failure are clearly illustrated by current epidemiological data and were revisited in paper 3 – Epidemiology of heart failure. In various epidemiological studies measured prevalence and incidence of the syndrome diverge significantly. This worrying variation is certainly more due to different definitions and used diagnostic criteria than true differences between populations. We faced these difficulties when we had to design the EPICA programme, a large population-based study where we had to define simple, effective and easy to obtain diagnostic criteria of heart failure, for the whole spectrum of the disease, in primary care setting. The problem grew when we focused on heart failure with normal ejection function where diagnostic criteria were far from consensual. Therefore large trials on heart failure with normal ejection fraction and consensual evidence-based Guidelines on diagnosis and treatment of diastolic heart failure are still missing. Paper 4 – Prevalence of heart failure in Portugal - presents the design of the EPICA Programme. The EPICA study was one of the first large epidemiological studies addressing the prevalence of global heart failure, in the community, according to the European Guidelines for the diagnosis of the syndrome. We had to define simple, precise echocardiographic criteria to confirm a suspected diagnosis of heart failure on clinical grounds, in all its spectrum. At that time, Guidelines for heart failure with normal ejection fraction where far from consensual and non applicable to the ambulatory. In paper 5 - Prevalence of heart failure in Southwestern Europe: the EPICA study - we reported the prevalence of heart failure in mainland Portugal. From 5434 attendants of primary care centres, representative of the Portuguese population above 25 years, 551 had heart failure, leading to a prevalence of global heart failure of 4.35%, increasing sharply with age in both genders; 1.36% had systolic dysfunction and 1.7% normal ejection fraction. TESE3 AF 6/9/08 12:25 PM Page 310 Summary 311 In paper 6 – Epidemiology of heart failure in primary care in Madeira: the EPICA-RAM study - we report an overall prevalence of heart failure of 4.69%, with systolic dysfunction in 0.76% and with a normal ejection fraction in 2.74% of the cases. Discrepancies in the prevalence of the different types of heart failure between mainland and Madeira are probably related to different Public Health Care organization. Both studies showed that only half of the patients with a suspected diagnosis of heart failure on clinical grounds had the diagnosis confirmed by objective evidence of cardiac dysfunction. It’s therefore probable that unnecessary drugs were prescribed to patients who didn’t need them while others, who would benefit, were not correctly treated for heart failure. Paper 7 – Diagnosis of heart failure in primary care – is a review of the state of the art of the diagnosis of heart failure in primary care setting. It focused on main challenges faced by primary care physicians, namely difficulties on the access to imaging and strategies to screen for cardiac dysfunction. General practitioners awareness and training on the diagnosis and treatment of the syndrome are crucial to halt the epidemic. But problems on the diagnosis of heart failure are not exclusive of primary care. Heart failure is the first cause of hospitalization of patients above 65 years in medical wards, and accounts for more than 70% of the costs with the syndrome. In paper 9 – Validity of a diagnosis of heart failure: implications of misdiagnosing – we reported a prevalence of heart failure in patients hospitalized in our Medicine Department, during a six month period, of 17%. The diagnosis was actually sub-coded at death /discharge. The accuracy of the death / discharge coded diagnosis was 72.2%; the syndrome was under-diagnosed in 21.1% of the cases and over-diagnosed in 8.3%. The discharge codes failed a significant percentage of heart failure cases, biased the actual burden of the syndrome and compromise the allocation of resources to manage in-hospital heart failure and to develop specialised programmes of interaction with primary care. In paper 8 – Treatment of heart failure in Portuguese hospitals: results of a questionnaire – everybody reported difficulties in the management of heart failure. Heads of Cardiology Wards needed more specialised physicians and nurses as well as specific heart failure units for the management of the syndrome, and Heads of Internal Medicine Wards demand more facilities, easier access to echocardiography, and support from heart failure specialised cardiologists. Difficulties in the diagnosis of heart failure at all levels of care, have huge epidemiological, clinical and economic consequences for the individual patient, National Health Services and Public Health. In chapter III, we revisit the relevance of a complete diagnosis of heart failure. An appraisal based on symptoms alone is clearly an incomplete and inaccurate representation of the severity of cardiovascular disease. Determination of cardiac status requires evaluation of composite etiologic, anatomic, and physiologic diagnoses. Functional class and comorbidities must complement the diagnosis, leading to the more appropriate and individualized treatment. Aware of the uncertainty of the diagnosis of heart failure in primary care setting and of the role of General Practitioners in the management of the syndrome, we have evaluated in pre-specified substudies of the EPICA programme, the accuracy of clinics and tests available to the diagnosis of heart failure in the community. Paper 10 – The diagnosis of heart failure in primary care: value of symptoms and signs – confirmed that symptoms and signs and clinical history have limited value in diagnosing heart failure when used alone. The signs and symptoms that best predicted a diagnosis of heart failure were those associated with more severe disease. Among current symptoms, the history of paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnoea (LR 35.5), orthopnea (LR 39.1) and dyspnoea when walking on the flat (LR 25.8) were associated with a diagnosis of heart failure. However, these symptoms were not frequent within this population (sensitivity < 36%). Jugular pressure > 6 cm with hepatic enlargement, and oedema of the lower limbs (LR 130.3), a ventricular gallop (LR 30.0), a heart rate above 110 bpm (LR 26.7), and rales (LR 23.3), were all associated with a diagnosis of heart failure but TESE3 AF 6/9/08 12:25 PM Page 311 312 Summary were infrequent findings (sensitivity < 10%). Prior use of digoxin (LR 24.9) and/or diuretics (LR 10.6), an history of coronary artery disease (LR 7.1) or of pulmonary oedema (LR 54.2) were also associated with a greater likelihood of having heart failure. In paper 11 – Aetiology, comorbidity and drug therapy of chronic heart failure in the real world: the EPICA substudy – aetiological features and therapy relevant comorbidities were analysed. Hypertension was the more frequent risk factor/aetiology of heart failure in the community in Portugal (about 80%). Thirty nine percent had an history of coronary artery disease, and 15% had atrial fibrillation. In paper 12 – The value of electrocardiogram and X-ray for confirming or refuting a suspected diagnosis of heart failure in the community – we reported that ECG and X-ray features are not sufficient to allow heart failure to be reliably predicted in the community. Twenty five percent of patients with heart failure had a normal ECG or chest X-ray. In paper 13 – Evaluation of the performance and concordance of clinical questionnaires for heart failure in the primary care – we compared the accuracy of seven clinical questionnaires and scores for the diagnosis of heart failure in the community, and their concordance. Concordance was good between most of the questionnaires. Their low sensibility impairs their usefulness as diagnostic instruments, but their high specificity (>90%) makes them useful for the identification of patients with symptoms and signs from non-cardiac cause. In paper 14 – Epidemiology of heart failure in mainland Portugal: new data from the EPICA study -characteristics of patients with a definite diagnosis of heart failure and of those in whom the diagnosis of heart failure suspected on clinical grounds was excluded (false positive) were compared. The laters were older, more frequently women, had excessive weight, and a history of coronary artery disease was less frequent. Clinics, ECG and chest X-ray could not distinguish patients with heart failure due to systolic dysfunction from those with normal ejection fraction. Considering the limited and costly access to echocardiography in the community we address in paper 15 - the diagnostic challenge of heart failure with preserved systolic function in primary care: an EPICA-RAM substudy. The performance of BNP as a predictor of a diagnosis of heart failure with preserved systolic function according to ESC Guidelines, left ventricular hypertrophy and dilated left atria by echocardiography was tested. BNP was a good predictor of a dilated left atria, but not of the diagnosis of heart failure with preserved systolic function or of left ventricular hypertrophy (AUC: 0.89, 0.56, and 0.54 respectively). We conclude that BNP measurement alone was not a suitable screening test for heart failure with normal ejection fraction in the community, at least in patients with no or mild symptoms.In paper 16 – Comparative value of BNP and NTproBNP on the diagnosis of heart failure – we first established normal values and cut-offs for our laboratory.Then we assess the diagnostic accuracy of both peptides for the in-hospital diagnosis of heart failure due to systolic dysfunction and with normal ejection fraction. BNP and NT-proBNP had an excellent and similar accuracy to the diagnosis of both types of symptomatic heart failure, but none could distinguish patients with systolic heart failure from those with normal ejection fraction. We revisited the role of the various tests on the diagnosis of heart failure with systolic dysfunction, and with normal ejection fraction and discussed the more recent International Guidelines. There is a great piece of evidence that early treatment of asymptomatic left ventricular systolic dysfunction is cost-effective. Therefore, several screening strategies were investigated. ECG and type B natriuretic peptides measurements, alone or as part of clinical scores, allowed cost-effective community-based screening for left ventricular systolic dysfunction, especially in high-risk subjects. A programme including hand-held echocardiography, following NT-proBNP or ECG pre-screening prior to traditional echocardiogram was the most cost-effective.Screening strategies for left ventricular dysfunction proved no more costly than existing screening programmes such as those for cervical or breast cancer. Conversely, as far as we know, there is no proven strategy to efficiently screen for diastolic dysfunction in the community.Finally we discuss perspectives for heart failure TESE3 AF 6/9/08 12:25 PM Page 312 Summary 313 management in the near future. Simple, reliable and consensual diagnostic procedures are crucial to evaluate the actual burden of the disease, to comply with Guidelines and to reduce healthcare utilisation and costs. As the management of the syndrome in primary care has been hampered by perceived difficulties in diagnosis, improving diagnostic skills is essential and remains a continuous challenge for primary care clinicians. Moreover, patients may require more investigations and treatments that may not be available or very familiar to General Practitioners. Shared care is therefore necessary. Disease management programmes when available and accessible, are the preferred choice to address this issue. This multidisciplinary model of care delivered in specialized heart failure clinics, heart failure day hospitals and many other heart failure care stru-ctures, have shown success in improving quality of life, and reducing morbi-mortality and costs. In paper 17 - Translating Guidelines into clinical practice: benefits of an acute heart failure unit - we report a better compliance with Guidelines on diagnosis and treatment of heart failure after the implementation of a specialized heart failure unit in our Internal Medicine Department. We defend the implementation of heart failure programme management networks to provide optimal care for both patients and health care providers. They may consist of different structures to better address the needs of the referred patient, the referral physician and the regional health care system, and should have a crucial role in transition between primary and secondary care. Managing heart failure requires resources across the entire spectrum of care. Strategies to prevent heart failure include both primary and secondary prevention, and should encompass risk factors control and screening strategies for cardiac dysfunction in the community. Screening for high risk patients and, at least, for patients with asymptomatic systolic dysfunction is cost effective. Therefore, to improve heart failure outcomes and halt the epidemic, this will require shared efforts from investigators, clinicians and politicians. Health care strategy with adequate funding are imperative for successfull heart failure management. RÉSUMÉ: L’insuffisance cardiaque, déjà appelée d’épidémie du XXIeme siècle, est un problème de Santé Publique partout en Europe. Malgré les immenses progrès faits dans le domaine du traitement, dans les deux dernières décennies, l’insuffisance cardiaque est parmi les maladies cardiovasculaires la seule dont l’incidence et prévalence ne cessent d’augmenter. Ses principales caractéristiques sont une mortalité très élevée -supérieure à celle de l’ensemble des cancers - et un impact économique considérable sur les Systèmes de Santé. La prise en charge des insuffisants cardiaques doit ainsi être envisagée comme une priorité absolue. Toutefois, et bien que la sévérité de la situation soit universellement reconnue, Gouvernements et Systèmes de Santé n’ont pris que très peu de mesures concrètes, visant à freiner l’épidémie qui ne cesse de croître. Nous pouvons aujourd’hui prévenir et, sinon guérir l’insuffisance cardiaque, du moins la traiter de façon à freiner la progression de la maladie, ainsi nous soyons capables de faire le diagnostique à temps. Toute attitude térapêutique présume un diagnostique précoce et complet de la situation, sans lequel nulle attitude correcte ne pourra être prise. OBJECTIFS: Nous nous proposons analyser les problèmes du diagnostique de l’insuffisance cardiaque, à la lumière des connaissances actuelles et de notre propre expérience. Parmi les objectifs de ce travail, nous avons évalué la façon d’ont l’évolution des concepts d’insuffisance et de dysfonction cardiaque a influencé la définition et les critères de diagnostique, au cours des temps, et les conséquences du manque de consensus quant à la définition et aux critères de diagnostique pour les différentes phases d’évolution de la maladie. Nous avons discuté le rôle des symptômes, signaux et examens complémentaires dans le diagnostique de l'insuffisance cardiaque et dans les stratégies de screening de la dysfonction cardíaque. Finalement nous avons discuté quelques chemins et possibles stratégies à envisager pour la prise en charge de ces malades pour que, dans un future proche, nous soyons capables de mieux les traiter, mais aussi de mieux prévenir la maladie de façon à freiner l’épidémie. MÉTHODOLOGIE: La méthodologie utilisée pour ce travail dérive directement de l’expérience acquise dans la prise en charge des malades, et de l’investigation gérée par les difficultés perçues quant au diagnostique de l’insuffisance cardiaque, au long des années. Quand de l’élaboration de l’étude EPICA née de la nécessité d’obtenir des données épidémiologiques nationales en ce qui concerne l’insuffisance cardiaque au Portugal, nous avons conçu, selon un dessin original, un protocole d’investigation qui nous a permis d’évaluer la qualité du diagnostique de l’insuffisance cardiaque réalisé par les médecins de famille ainsi que le rôle des symptômes, des signaux, des données de l´histoire clinique, de l’électrocardiogramme e de la radiographie du thorax, dans le diagnostique de l’ insuffisance dans l’ambulatoire. Nous avons aussi investigué la qualité du diagnostique établi pendant l’hospitalisation. Nous avons déterminé la réelle prévalence de l’insuffisance cardíaque hospitalisée dans notre service au long de six mois et celle qui a été codifiée au moment de la sortie de l´hôpital. Nous avons encore comparé la qualité do diagnostique avant et après l’ouverture d’une unité d’insuffisance cardiaque et la performance des différents peptides natriurétiques dans le diagnostique du syndrome. Sous la forme de réponse à un questionnaire, qui leur a été adressé par le Groupe de Travail d’insuffisance cardiaque de la Société Portugaise de Cardiologie, sur la prise en charge de l’insuffisance cardiaque, les Directeurs des Services de Cardiologie et Médicine Interne de tout le Pays se sont prononcés sur à leurs difficultés, en ce qui concerne le diagnostique et le traitement de l’insuffisance cardiaque. Les résultats des investigations partielles ont été communiqués à la communauté scientifique et publiés dans les journaux de la spécialité, au long de ces dernières années. Cette dissertation est constituée par les papiers publiés et en publication auxquels nous avons additionné une révision de l’état actuel de l’art du diagnostique de l’insuffisance cardiaque, ainsi q’une réflexion sur les 317 TESE3 AF 6/9/08 12:25 PM Page 317 318 Résumé conséquences des difficultés éprouvées au diagnostique de la maladie et sur la manière d’améliorer la prise en charge de l’insuffisance cardiaque.RÉSULTATS: En 1982, l’hors de notre début d’activité, nous avons eu très tôt la perception de la complexité de l’insuffisance cardiaque et du défi que constituait, pour les cliniciens, la prise en charge de ces malades. Nous avons participé au développement d’une classification physiopathologique originale qui a servi de base pour le doctorat de la Professeur Fátima Ceia en 1989. L’article 1 – Insuffisance cardiaque : nouveaux concepts physiopathologiques et leurs applications thérapeutiques – publié en 1984, nous décrivons déjà l’insuffisance cardiaque comme une maladie systémique, résultat de l’interaction des différents mécanismes de compensation de la dysfonction cardiaque. Nous proposons « une classification physiopathologique avec application thérapeutique » originale, où nous définissons les différents types d’insuffisance cardiaque et leurs caractéristiques cliniques, hémodynamiques, fonctionnelles et anatomiques et proposons un traitement individualisé d’accord avec la définition et le diagnostique de chacun de ces différents types d’insuffisance cardiaque. En 1994, l’article 2 – L’insuffisance cardiaque et le clinicien à la fin du XXème siècle – fait une description détaillée de comment les différents mécanismes de compensation interagissent, influencent l’évolution de la maladie, produisent les différents syndromes et justifient le choix du type de traitement. Nous discutons l’évolution de la définition de la maladie d’accord avec l’évolution de l’investigation et une meilleure connaissance de la physiopathologie de la dysfonction cardiaque. Nous soulignons la nécessité du diagnostique et du traitement précoces et quant urgent il est de développer des stratégies capables de prévenir la maladie. Les investigateurs défendent aussi l’existence d’un continu entre l’insuffisance cardiaque à fraction d’éjection normale e celle qui s’accompagne de dysfonction systolique ventriculaire. Ce concept défend l’existence de plusieurs syndromes d’insuffisance cardiaque qui ne représenteront que des phénotypes différents d’une même maladie. Des nouvelles Recommandations pour le diagnostique et exclusion de l’insuffisance cardiaque à fraction d’éjection normale / dysfonction diastolique surgissent. Nous revisitons ces nouveaux concepts dans le chapitre: L’insuffisance cardiaque: de la physiopathologie à la clinique - un modèle en constante évolution. Au chapitre II – Le diagnostique de l’insuffisance cardiaque: problèmes et conséquences prévisibles - nous analysons les conséquences du manque de critères de diagnostique consensuels pour l’insuffisance cardiaque au long de tout son spectre. Les difficultés avec le diagnostique se répercutent sur les résultats des grandes études épidémiologiques. Nous avons senti cette difficulté quand, lors de l’élaboration du programme EPICA – ÉPidémiologie de l’Insuffisance Cardiaque et Apprentissage - nous avons voulu définir les critères pour le diagnostique de l’insuffisance cardiaque de tous les types, applicables à l’ambulatoire et d’accord avec les Recommandations Internationales. L’article 3 - Épidémiologie de l’insuffisance cardiaque – analyse les conséquences des différentes définitions et critères de diagnostique utilisés dans les grandes études épidémiologiques qui, au long des années, ont publié des prévalences et incidences très variables de l’insuffisance cardiaque. Ce problème s’aggrave encore quand il s’agit de l’épidémiologie de l’insuffisance cardiaque à fraction d’éjection normale ou dysfonction diastolique, ou des stratégies pour le screening de la dysfonction cardiaque asymptomatique, situations à définitions et critères encore moins consensuels. L’inexistence de Recommandations appuyées sur l’évidence, pour le traitement de l’insufisance cardiaque à fraction d’éjection normale ou à dysfonction diastolique, est une autre des conséquences de ces difficultés. C’est ainsi que des différences de méthodologie, de définitions et de critères de diagnostique, plutôt que des différences réelles entre les populations, difficultent notre connaissance quant à la réelle surcharge que l’insuffisance cardiaque et la dysfonction cardiaque imposent au Système National de Santé. Il est ainsi difficile de prévoir les recours nécessaires, à attribuer à une situation qui est mal connue. L’ article 4 – Prévalence de l’insuffisance cardiaque au Portugal – présente le dessin des études EPICA et EPICA-RAM. EPICA a été l’une des premières études TESE3 AF 6/9/08 12:25 PM Page 318 Résumé 319 à évaluer la prévalence de l’insuffisance cardiaque symptomatique globale, de l’ambulatoire, suivant les Recommandations de la Société Européenne de Cardiologie pour le diagnostique de l’insuffisance cardiaque. Nous y définissons des critères echocardiographiques précis pour tous les types d’insuffisance cardiaque, notamment celle à fraction d’éjection normale, alors qu’à l’époque il n’y avait pas encore de Recommandations consensuelles pour le diagnostic de cette situation. L’article 5 – Prevalence of chronic heart failure in Southwestern Europe : the EPICA study - relate la prévalence de l’insuffisance cardiaque au Portugal continental en 1998. Dans une population de 5434 individus âgés de plus 25 ans, représentative de la population portugaise nous avons identifié 551 cas d’insuffisance cardiaque, correspondant à une prévalence de 4,3%, qui augmente avec l´âge, chez les deux genres ; chez 1,3% la dysfonction ventriculaire est systolique, alors que 1,75% ont une fraction d’éjection normale. L’article 6 – Epidemiology of chronic heart failure in Primary Care in the Autonomic Region of Madeira: the EPICA-RAM study – a suivi le même protocole d’investigation et relate une prévalence de l’insuffisance cardiaque globale de 4,69%, 0,76 % à dysfonction ventriculaire systolique et 2,74% à fraction d’éjection normale. Ces deux études confirment que quand le diagnostique est suspecté par la clinique il ne se confirme objectivement qu’en la moitié des cas, ce qui fait supposer que beaucoup de malades seront sous médication inappropriée pour l’insuffisance cardiaque alors que d’autres, qui auraient tout intérêt à la faire, en seront probablement privés. L’article 7 – Diagnosis of chronic heart failure in Primary Care - revoit l’état de l’art quant au diagnostique de l’insuffisance cardiaque dans la communauté et discute les principaux défis auxquels les médecins de famille sont soumis, notamment les difficultés d’accès aux examens complémentaires de diagnostique et le screening de la dysfonction cardiaque asymptomatique dans la population en général. Mais les problèmes de diagnostique de l’insuffisance cardiaque, se posent transversalement à tous les niveaux, à l’hôpital comme chez le médecin de famille. Bien que l’insuffisance cardiaque soit la première cause d’hospitalisation après les 65 ans, responsable pour la plupart des coûts consommés par le syndrome, le diagnostique y est sous-estimé. L’article 9 – Validity of a diagnosis of heart failure : implications of misdiagnosing – démontre que l’insuffisance cardiaque a été la première cause d’hospitalisation dans notre service, pendant une période de six mois, ayant une prévalence de 17% et a été largement sous codifiée. La sous codification du diagnostique ne fait que diminuer le vrai poids du syndrome, menant à l’allocation incorrecte de recours pour la prise en charge de l’insuffisance cardiaque à l´hôpital et pour l’établissement de programmes capables de faire l’indispensable interface avec l’ambulatoire. En réponse au questionnaire sur la prise en charge de l’insuffisance cardiaque, que nous résumons dans l’article 8 – Traitement de l’insuffisance cardiaque dans les hôpitaux portugais : résultats d’un questionnaire - les Directeurs des Services de Médicine Interne ont relaté leurs difficultés d’accès à l’échocardiographie en temps utile et réclamé plus de collaboration du cardiologue; les Directeurs des Services de Cardiologie demandent plus de spécialistes et de structures vocationnées pour le diagnostique et traitement de l’insuffisance cardiaque. Les difficultés posées par le diagnostique de l’insuffisance cardiaque à tous les niveaux de soins, entraînent des conséquences épidémiologiques, socioéconomiques et financières néfastes pour le patient, la planification du Système National de Santé et la Santé Publique. Au chapitre III nous rappelons l’importance du diagnostique complet de l’insuffisance cardiaque. Au diagnostique anatomique, fonctionnel et du syndrome, il faut absolument joindre l’étiologie, la classe fonctionnelle e les comorbidités qui conditionnent souvent l’interprétation des testes de diagnostique, le traitement et le pronostique. Conscients des difficultés éprouvées para les médecins de famille, pour diagnostiquer correctement et en temps utile l’insuffisance cardiaque dans l’ambulatoire, et du rôle de ces Spécialistes en ce qui concerne la contention de l’épidémie, nous nous sommes proposés, comme objectifs secondaires de l’étude EPICA,d’investiguer la performance des instruments de diagnostique disponibles et à portée de ces cliniciens. L’article 10 – The diagnosis of heart failure in primary TESE3 AF 6/9/08 12:25 PM Page 319 320 Résumé care: value of symptoms and signs – documente les limitations des symptômes, signaux et des données cliniques, quand utilisés de forme isolée, pour le diagnostique de l’insuffisance cardiaque. Ils sont tous peu sensibles et ceux qui ont la plus grande valeur prédictive sont ceux qui s’associent aux formes congestives, plus graves, de la maladie: la dyspnée paroxysmale nocturne (LR 35,5), l’orthopnée (LR 39,1), la difficulté respiratoire pendant la marche en plan horizontal (LR 25,8), l’ ingurgitation jugulaire > 6 cm accompagnée d’ hépatomégalie e d’oedème des membres inférieurs (LR 130,3), le galop ventriculaire (LR 30,0), la tachycardie >110ppm (LR 26,7) et les crépitations pulmonaires (LR 23,3) sont ainsi associés au diagnostique, mais sont très peu fréquents chez les insuffisants cardiaques tout venant de l’ambulatoire. Un traitement antérieur avec du diurétique (LR 10,6) ou de la digoxine (LR 24,9), ou encore un épisode antérieur d’oédeme pulmonaire aigu (LR 54,2), sont d’autres prédicteurs du diagnostique. L’article 11 – Aetiology, comorbidity and drug therapy of chronic heart failure in the real world: the EPICA substudy – confirme que l´hypertension artérielle est, d’entre tous les facteurs de risque, la principale étiologie de l’insuffisance cardiaque dans l’ambulatoire au Portugal (80%). Trente neuf pourcent des malades inclus dans l’étude EPICA avaient une histoire de maladie coronarienne et 15% de fibrillation auriculaire. Nous avons encore analysé la comorbidité et son influence sur la prescription, en sachant que la prescription des médicaments recommandés pour l’insuffisance cardiaque est, au Portugal comme d’une forme générale en Europe, bien inférieur au désirable. L’article 12 - The value X- ray for confirming or refuting a suspected diagnosis of heart failure in the community – démontre que les données de l’électrocardiogramme e de la radiographie du thorax, par sois même, ne prédisent pas correctement le diagnostique de l’insuffisance cardiaque dans l’ambulatoire; 25% des insuffisants cardiaques inclus dans EPICA avaient un électrocardiogramme où une radiographie du thorax normal. Al’article 13 - Evaluation of the performance and concordance of clinical questionnaires for heart failure in primary care – nous avons comparé sept questionnaires ou scores cliniques habituellement utilisés pour le diagnostique de l’insuffisance cardiaque dans les grandes études épidémiologiques et de médicaments. Ils ont démontré avoir une concordance à peine raisonnable à bonne entre eux, et être très spécifiques (>90%) pour le diagnostique mais peu sensibles. Ils augmentent la probabilité du diagnostique de 4,3% prétest vers 25 à 30% post-test et se révèlent ainsi des instruments plus utiles dans l’exclusion d’une cause cardiaque pour les symptômes que pour le diagnostique de l’insuffisance cardiaque. L’article 14 – Épidémiologie de l’insuffisance cardiaque au Portugal continental : nouvelles données de l’étude EPICA – compare les caractéristiques des malades qui, ayant une clinique compatible avec le syndrome, ont été inclus dans EPICA mais n’avaient pas de dysfonction cardiaque objective (faux positifs), avec ceux qui ont eu leur diagnostique objectivement confirmé. Les premiers étaient plus âgés, il y avait plus de femmes, plus de poids excessif, moins de maladie coronarienne. L’investigation confirme encore que les données de l’électrocardiogramme e de la radiographie du torax ne distinguent pas les insuffisants cardiaques qui ont une dysfonction systolique ventriculaire de ceux qui ont une fraction d’éjection normale. Face au défi du diagnostique de l’insuffisance cardiaque à fraction d’éjection normale, aux difficultés d’accès à l’échocardiographie dans l’ambulatoire, au prix de l’examen et aux critères encore peu consensuels pour le diagnostique de cette situation, nous avons analysé et publié à l’article 15 – The diagnostic challenge of heart failure with preserved systolic function in primary care setting: an EPICA-RAM substudy - la valeur des peptides natriurétiques du type B, NTproBNP, comme test de triage des malades qui, parmi ceux qui présentent une clinique compatible avec le syndrome, devront confirmer objectivement le diagnostique par échocardiographie. Ainsi, nous avons évalué la performance du test comme prédicteur : du diagnostique d’insuffisance cardiaque à fraction d’éjection normale, selon les Recommandations internationales, d’hypertrophie ventriculaire gauche et de dilatation de l’auricule gauche. Le NT-proBNP n’à été bon prédicteur que de ce dernier paramètre, ce qui nous fait conclure que le test ne permet pas de trier les malades de façon à diminuer les nécessités d’échocardiographie face à une hypothèse clinique d’insuffisance cardiaque, du moins en ce qui concerne les cas peu évolués, fréquemment asymptomatiques, de TESE3 AF 6/9/08 12:25 PM Page 320 Résumé 321 l’ambulatoire. Nous avons aussi comparé la performance des peptides natriurétiques du type B - BNP et NT-proBNP – quant au diagnostique de l’insuffisance cardiaque symptomatique à dysfonction ventriculaire systolique et à fraction d’éjection normale, traitée à l’hôpital. Les résultats de cette investigation sont révélés dans l’article 16 – Comparative value of BNP and NT-proBNP for the diagnosis of heart failure. Les deux tests ont démontré une performance excelente et comparable dans le diagnostique du syndrome, mais aucun n’a été capable de distinguer les deux types d’insuffisance cardiaque. Nous avons revu et discuté l’état de l’art quant au rôle des différents examens complémentaires, notamment des peptides natriurétiques et de l’échocardiographie, dans le diagnostique des différents types d’insuffisance et de dysfonction cardiaque, ainsi que les toutes dernières Recommandations internationales. Nous avons analysé les stratégies proposées pour le screening de la dysfonction ventriculaire asymptomatique, qui est au moins aussi fréquente dans l’ambulatoire que l’insuffisance cardiaque symptomatique. Par ailleurs, l’évidence montre que le traitement précoce de la dysfonction ventriculaire asymptomatique, est efficace et diminue les coûts. Le gold standard pour le screening de la dysfonction ventriculaire imposerait la réalisation d’un échocardiogramme à toute la population, ce qui est incomportable. Plusieurs stratégies ont été investiguées, ces dernières années, à la recherche de celle qui sera la plus efficace tout en épargnant le plus possible. Tous affirment que aucun examen isolé ne pourra être suffisant pour ce screening. Par contre, l’électrocardiogramme et/ou les peptides natriurétiques, incorporés ou non en scores cliniques, sont souvent évoqués comme testes efficaces pour le pré-screening des patients à envoyer à l’échocardiographie. Son utilisation diminue le nombre ’échocardiogrammes nécessaires et la dépense, tout en étant au moins aussi efficace que le screening du cancer du sein ou du colle de l’utérus, exige un investissement qui n’est en rien supérieur. Quelques auteurs ont démontré que l'exécution d’un échocardiogramme qualitatif, fait avec un échocardiographe portable, après l’ECG ou la détermination du BNP/ NT-proBNP et avant l’échocardiogramme complet, améliore encore la stratégie pour le screening de la dysfonction cardiaque. Finalement nous terminons avec quelques commentaires concernant les perspectives futures pour la prise en charge de l’insuffisanc e cardiaque. Il est absolument urgent et primordial d’établir d’une définition précise et universelle, ainsi que de critères de diagnostique objectifs, simples et reproductibles, applicables à tout le spectre de l’insuffisance cardiaque, de façon à ce que, dans un futur proche, nous soyons capables de connaître le véritable poids de l’insuffisance cardiaque, d’organiser une prise en charge le plus efficace possible tout en respectant l’inévitable contention des dépenses publiques. Les problèmes de diagnostique de l’ambulatoire exigent que les médecins de famille disposent de programmes de formation continus et que le dialogue avec l’hôpital et les spécialistes soit facilité, tel que nous l’avons fait, de forme programmée, systématiquement,pendant le programme EPICA. Les cliniques d’insuffisance cardiaque et les programmes structurés de prise en charge de l’insuffisance cardiaque ont démontré leur efficacité. Ils permettent une meilleure implémentation des Recommandations de diagnóstique et traitement, améliorent la qualité de vie et la survie des insuffisants cardiaques qui y sont suivis. Dans l’article 17 - Translating Guidelines into clinical practice : benefits of an acute heart failure unit - nous rendons compte de notre expérience en ce qui concerne les gains obtenus quant au diagnostic et traitement des insuffisants cardiaques hospitalisés dans notre service avant et après l’ouverture d’une unité d’insuffisance cardiaque et qui nous a permi d’amelliorer la qualité des soins prêtés à ces malades. Nous défendons que ces unités spécialement vocationnées pour la prise en charge de l’insuffisance cardiaque doivent se multiplier, s’intégrer en programmes plus vastes d’organisation de soins à prêter aux insuffisants cardiaques, qui incluent notamment l´hôpital de jour et adopter des structures variables d’accord avec les nécessités des populations qu’elles servent. Ces programmes de prise en charge de l’insuffisance cardiaque pourront assumer un rôle déterminant dans la formation scientifique des médecins, spécialement des médecins de famille, dans l’interface entre les soins primaires et l’hôpital et dans la référentiation des insuffisants cardiaques. Tous les efforts pour identifier et corriger précocement les facteurs de risque cardiovasculaire et développer TESE3 AF 6/9/08 12:25 PM Page 321 Résumé des stratégies pour le screening de la dysfonction cardiaque doivent être multipliés comme stratégies de prévention. Tout cela est possible, efficace à un pris semblable à celui d’autres programmes déjà en cours, mais exige la collaboration de tous, population, professionnels de santé, investigateurs et pouvoir politique qui viabilise l’évaluation des nécessités, le montage de ces programmes multidisciplinaires, et en contrôle la qualité, de façon à ce que très vite nous puissions contrôler cette épidémie.