A genetic linkage map of Pacific white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei): sex-linked microsatellite markers and high recombination rates

Pacific white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) is the leading species farmed in the Western Hemisphere and an economically important aquaculture species in China. In this project, a genetic linkage map was constructed using amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) and microsatellite markers. One hundred and eight select AFLP primer combinations and 30 polymorphic microsatellite markers produced 2071 markers that were polymorphic in either of the parents and segregated in the progeny. Of these segregating markers, 319 were mapped to 45 linkage groups of the female framework map, covering a total of 4134.4 cM; and 267 markers were assigned to 45 linkage groups of the male map, covering a total of 3220.9 cM. High recombination rates were found in both parental maps. A sex-linked microsatellite marker was mapped on the female map with 6.6 cM to sex and a LOD of 17.8, two other microsatellite markers were also linked with both 8.6 cM to sex and LOD score of 14.3 and 16.4. The genetic maps presented here will serve as a basis for the construction of a high-resolution genetic map, quantitative trait loci (QTLs) detection, marker-assisted selection (MAS) and comparative genome mapping.

The variability of eddy kinetic energy in the South China Sea deduced from satellite altimeter data

We used fifteen years (1993-2007) of altimetric data, combined from different missions (ERS-1/2, TOPEX/Poseidon, Jason-1, and Envisat), to analyze the variability of the eddy kinetic energy (EKE) in the South China Sea (SCS). We found that the EKE ranged from 64 cm(2)/s(2) to 1 390 cm(2)/s(2) with a mean value of 314 cm(2)/s(2). The highest EKE center was observed to the east of Vietnam (with a mean value of 509 cm(2)/s(2)) and the second highest EKE region was located to the southwest of Taiwan Island (with a mean value of 319 cm(2)/s(2)). We also found that the EKE structure is the consequence of the superposition of different variability components. First, interannual variability is important in the SCS. Spectral analysis of the EKE interannual signal (IA-EKE) shows that the main periodicities of the IA-EKE to the east of Vietnam, to the southwest of Taiwan Island, and in the SCS are 3.75, 1.87, and 3.75 years, respectively. It is to the south of Taiwan Island that the IA-EKE signal has the most obvious impact on EKE variability. In addition, the IA-EKE exhibit different trends in different regions. An obvious positive trend is observed along the east coast of Vietnam, while a negative trend is found to the southwest of Taiwan Island and in the east basin of Vietnam. Correlation analysis shows that the IA-EKE has an obvious negative correlation with the SSTA in Nio3 (5A degrees S-5A degrees N, 90A degrees W-150A degrees W). El Nio-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) affects the IA-EKE variability in the SCS through an atmospheric bridge-wind stress curl over the SCS. Second, the seasonal cycle is the most obvious timescale affecting EKE variability. The locations of the most remarkable EKE seasonal variabilities in the SCS are to the east of Vietnam, to the southwest of Taiwan, and to the west of Philippines. To the east of Vietnam, the seasonal cycle is the dominant mechanism controlling EKE variability, which is attributed primarily to the annual cycle there of wind stress curl. In this area, the maximum EKE is observed in autumn. To the southwest of Taiwan Island, the EKE is enlarged by the stronger SCS circulation, which is caused by the intrusion branch from the Kuroshio in winter. Finally, intra-annual and mesoscale variability, although less important than the former, cannot be neglected. The most obvious intra-annual and mesoscale variability, which may be the result of baroclinic instability of the background flow, are observed to the southwest of Taiwan Island. Sporadic events can have an important effect on EKE variability.

On SAR wind speed ambiguities and related geophysical model functions

Recent investigations show that normalized radar cross sections for C-band microwave sensors decrease under high wind conditions with certain incident angles instead of increase, as is the case for low to moderate wind speeds. This creates the problem of ambiguities in high wind speed retrievals from synthetic aperture radar (SAR). In the present work, four geophysical model functions (GMFs) are studied, namely the high wind C-band model 4 (CMOD4HW), C-band model 5 (CMOD5), the high wind vertical polarized GMF (HWGMF_VV), and the high wind horizontal polarized GMF (HWGMF_HH). Our focus is on model behaviours relative to wind speed ambiguities. We show that, except for CMOD4HW, the other GMFs exhibit the wind speed ambiguity problem. To consider this problem in high wind speed retrievals from SAR, we focus on hurricanes and propose a method to remove the speed ambiguity using the dominant hurricane wind structure.

Thermal conductivity of graded spherical composites with contact resistance

The effective thermal conductivity of graded composites with contact resistance on the inclusion surface is investigated. As an example, we have considered the graded composite media with a spherical particle embedded in a homogeneous matrix, where the thermal conductivity of spherical inclusion is an exponential function k(i) = c exp(betar) (where r is the inside distance of a point in particle from the center of the spherical particle in a spherical coordinate). For both heat contact resistance and perfect contact cases, we have given a reasonable effective medium approximation to calculate the effective conductivity. (C) 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

凡纳滨对虾分子标记筛选、连锁图谱构建和QTL定位

利用AFLP和微卫星标记，以凡纳滨对虾F1全同胞家系为作图群体，构建了凡纳滨对虾的雌性和雄性遗传连锁图谱并对生长相关性状体长和体重进行了QTL分析。利用经过筛选的108对AFLP引物组合，对亲本和94个子代个体进行了分离分析。共得到2041个多态AFLP标记（1:1分离）。平均每个引物组合产生20个多态片段。有826个AFLP标记偏离孟德尔遗传（40.5%, P<0.05）。所筛选的100个微卫星标记中有30个在家系中有作图信息，分别有24个和20个位点可以用于母本和父本的作图。对父母本β-1，3-葡聚糖结合蛋白(BGBP)，脂多糖和葡聚糖结合蛋白(LGBP)和蜕皮抑制激素（MIH）等基因片段进行序列分析得到一些可用于构建连锁图谱的SNP标记。 对所有的分离标记进行了连锁分析，分别绘制了凡纳滨对虾的雌性和雄性连锁图谱。雌性连锁图谱的框架图有319个遗传标记组成，分布于45个连锁群，其中AFLP标记300个，微卫星位点18个，性别标记一个，连锁群长度从29.5cM到260.0cM, 每个连锁群含4－16个标记。图谱长度为4134.4 cM, 各连锁群平均图距在7.6到25.9 cM之间，总平均图距为15.1 cM。有267个标记（含14个微卫星）整合到雄性框架图上。 雄性框架图也含45个连锁群，长度从14.2cM到161.1cM, 图谱长度为3220.9 cM, 各连锁群平均图距在4.1到25.5 cM之间，总平均图距为14.5 cM。 作图群体所有个体的性别均作为标记整合到雌雄分离信息中，在94个F1个体中，54个为雌虾，40个是雄虾。在雌性图谱第29连连锁群上，性别与三个微卫星标记紧密连锁（v1f148, v145f120, v95f166）, 图距分别为6.6, 8.6 和8.6cM, 相应LOD值分别为17.8 14.3 和 16.4。 与雌性图相对应的是，雄性图谱未发现任何与性别连锁的标记。推测凡纳滨对虾的性别决定机制可能是ZW型，其中雌性为异配性别。 体长和体重均显示出连续变异的特点，显示这些与生长相关的性状都是典型的数量性状或多基因遗传。体重和体长符合正态分布且两性状之间存在着显著的相关性（P<0.001），Pearson 相关系数为0.95。在凡纳滨对虾雌性图谱和雄性图谱上，共定位了6个与体长和体重等生长性状相关的QTL，可解释的表型变异从15.1％到21.3％。共检测到3个与体长相关的QTL，包括两个正向效应的QTL和一个负向的QTL，分别定位到雌性的第6连锁群和雄性的第4和11 连锁群上。体重也检测到3个QTL，其中一个QTL加性效应是正向的，分别位于雌性的第6和7连锁群及雄性的第11连锁群上。QTL主要集中在雌性图谱的Fc6和Fc7及雄性图的Mc4和Mc11上。体长和体重的QTL定位结果中各有两个是十分相似的，其相邻的标记位点完全一样，只是相应的LOD值略有差异，还各存在两性状特异的一个QTL。大多QTL与相邻标记之间的距离只有0.1cM(仅Wfc7的距离较大)，为进一步的精细定位奠定了基础。 分子标记筛选、遗传图谱的构建及生长相关性状的QTL定位为我们下一步从事分子标记辅助选择育种,QTL精细定位和比较基因作图打下基础，并最终推动凡纳滨对虾的遗传改良。

菲律宾蛤仔（Ruditapes philippinarum)能量代谢的研究

能量代谢指动物在进行生理活动(如摄食、消化以及动物的活动等)时所消耗能量的总和，一般以动物的呼吸率利排泄率来估计动物的能量代谢。其主要研究内容是闸明生物能量代谢的基木规律以及与环境闪子的关系。菲律宾蛤仔(Ruditapesphil ippmarum)是我国一种重要的养殖贝类，关于其能量代谢的研究却较少，这种状况妨碍了菲律宾蛤仔养殖生态理论的完善和养殖技术的提高。本研究主要对菲律宾蛤仔呼吸率和排泄率的基本规律(能量代谢与体重的关系、能量代谢的昼夜变化)及其与环境因子(饵料浓度、水温、栖息底质环境)的关系进行探讨。研究结果如下：1．不同体重菲律宾蛤仔代谢率小同。实验川菲律宾蛤仔分三种大小：l(干肉重为0．07-0．14g)、ll(干肉重0．27-0．34g)、III(干肉重0．45～0．63g)。温度包括：26℃(八月)、20℃(十月)、1 5℃(十二月)、9℃(一月)。实验共设四个饵料浓度：2．28±0．25，6．454±0．44，10．284±0．82，15．414±1．56mgTPM／L(TPM，总颗粒物)，饵料中POM(颗粒有机物)含量都为4．68±1．64 mg/L。常温下菲律宾蛤仔代谢率随着体重的增大而增大。15℃、20~C、26℃时蛤仔呼吸率与干肉重呈明显的幂函数关系R=aW~b，a值变动范围为0．1076-0．3309；b值变动范围为0．239l～0．8381；蛤仔排泄率与干肉重也呈明显的幂函数关系N=aW~b，a值变动范围为14．213～68．362：b值变动范围为0．3673-1．1 532。9℃(饵料浓度为2．28±0．25mgTPM／L)、20℃(饵料浓度为10．284-0．82mgTPM／L)、26℃(饵料浓度为6．454±0．44mgTPM／L)时不同体重蛤仔氧氮比差异显著，其它情况下不同体重蛤仔氧氮比差异不显著。2．常温下菲律宾蛤仔代谢率受饵料浓度的影响，不同大小蛤仔受饵料浓度的影响程度不同。I组蛤仔呼吸率受饵料浓度的显著影响，II组III组蛤仔呼吸率只在9℃(一月)和26~C(八月)时受饵料浓度的显著影响。26℃时影响最显著，26℃时I组蛤仔在饵料浓度为2．28±0．25，6．45±0．44，l0．28±0．82，15．4l±1．56mgTPM／L时呼吸率分别是O．086，0．146，0．073，0．093(mlO_2／h)；ll组蛤仔在上述浓度饵料中呼吸率分别是0．138，0．214，0．J 26，0．12l(mlO_2／h);III组蛤仔在上述浓度饵料中呼吸率分别是0．129，0．266，0．186，0．192(mlO_2／h)。菲律宾蛤仔呼吸率在饵料浓度为6．45±0．44 mgTPM／L时最高，蛤仔呼吸率在其它饵料浓度时都会降低。菲律宾蛤仔排泄率在饵料浓度为10．28±0．82 mgTPM／L和15．4l士1．56mgTPM／L时显著高于其它浓度组，9℃时这种趋势更明显，9℃时饵料浓度为2．28±0．25，6．454±044，lO．284±0．82，15．41±1．56mgTPM／L中I组蛤仔排泄率分别是4．297，2．874，8．003，6．658(μgNH_3-N／h)；II组蛤仔在上述浓度饵料中排泄率分别是4．011，3．609，10．427，12．732(μgNH_3-N／h)；III组蛤仔在上述浓度饵料中排泄率分别是2．28 l，6．452，10．283，15．417(μgNH_3-N／h)。3．菲律宾蛤仔代谢率受自然温度的显著影Ⅱ向。I组蛤仔在9℃、15℃、20℃、26℃时呼吸率平均为0．057，0．085，0．039，O．099；II组蛤仔在上述四个温度中呼吸率平均为0．08，O．128，0．089，0．149(mlO_2／h)，I组和II组蛤仔在9℃和20~C时呼吸率较低，在26℃时呼吸率最高。III组蛤仔在上述四个温度中呼吸率平均为0．09，O．1 59，O．143，O．193(mlO_2／h)，在9℃时llI组蛤仔呼吸率显著低于其它温度组。温度为9℃、15℃、20℃、26℃时l组蛤仔排泄率平均为5．458，13．169，4．946，11．138(μgNH_3-N／h)：II组蛤仔在上述温度中排泄率平均为7．695，23．578，8．319，23．90l(μgNH_3-N／h)；III组蛤仔在上述温度中排泄率平均为11．738，27．443，15．658，35．407(μgNH_3-N／h)，蛤仔排泄率在15℃和26℃时均高于9℃和20℃。4．摄食状态与饥饿状态菲律宾蛤仔代谢率有明显不同。26℃时蛤仔静止状态呼吸率平均为0．336(m102／g干重．h)，摄食状态呼吸率平均为0．656(ml0_2干重．h)，摄食状态呼吸率比静止状态平均升高了0 32(ml0_2／g干重．h)；26℃时蛤仔静止状态排泄率平均为39．471(μgNH_3-N／g干重．h)，摄食状态排泄率平均为88．08(μgNH_3-N／g干重．h)，摄食状态排泄率比静止状态排泄率平均升高了48．6(μgNH_3-N／g干重．h)。摄食状态代谢率平均是静止状态的2～3倍。根据摄食引起的呼吸率和排泄率升高量得出每氧化产生lμgNH_3-N需0_2量平均为7．05μl。5．人工控制温度对菲律宾蛤仔代谢率有明显影响。不同大小蛤仔受温度的影响程度不同。在温度5℃、10℃、l 5℃、20℃、26℃，I组和II组蛤仔呼吸率都随着温度的升高而升高，在10℃～l5℃和20℃～26℃这二个温度变化范围内呼吸率变化最大，在20℃～26℃时I组蛤仔呼吸率变动范围为O．85～1．04(m10_2／g干重．h)、II组蛤仔变动范围为0．57～0．86(ml0_2／g干重．h)。III组蛤仔呼吸率只在5℃～l0℃时明显增高，变动范围为0．09～0．5l(m10_2／g干重．h)，在10℃～26℃范围内变化不大。I组和II组蛤仔排泄率随着温度的升高而升高，变动幅度较大，在5℃～26℃范围内其排泄率变动范围为10．32～81．53(μgNH_3-N／g干重．h)；而 III组蛤仔排泄率只在5℃～15℃时随着温度的升高而升高，其排泄率变动范围为6．75～23．77(μgNH_3-N/g干重．h)，在15℃～26℃范围内几乎不变。III组蛤仔的适温范围比I组和II组蛤仔广。菲律宾蛤仔在5℃和10℃时氧氮比变化明显，变动范围为2．76～11．44，在15～26℃时变化不大。6．菲律宾蛤仔代谢率有明显的日节律性，呈正弦曲线型变化。蛤仔夜问代谢率明显升高。I组蛤仔夜间呼吸率平均为0．867(m10_2／g干重．h)，白天呼吸率平均为O．504(m10_2／g干重．h)；II组蛤仔夜间呼吸率平均为0．438(m10_2／g干重．h)，白天呼吸率平均为0．36l(m102／g干重．h)；III组蛤仔夜间呼吸率平均为0．409(m10_2／g干重．h)，白天呼吸率平均为0．252(m102／g干重．h)。在22：00-23：00菲律宾蛤仔呼吸率最高。7．底质环境对菲律宾蛤仔的代谢率有明显影响。在饥饿状态下菲律宾蛤仔在泥沙底质中呼吸率平均为l 406(m10_2／g干重h)，在无泥沙环境中呼吸率平均为O．963(ml0_2／g干重．h)；摄食状态下菲律宾蛤仔在泥沙底质中呼吸率平均为1．59l(m102／g干重．h)，在无泥沙环境中呼吸率平均为1．115(m10_2／g干重．h)。在饥饿状态下菲律宾蛤仔在泥沙底质中排泄率平均为78．934(μgNH_3-N／g 干重．h)，在无泥沙环境巾排泄率平均为45．043(μgNH_3-N／g干重．h)；摄食状态下菲律宾蛤仔在泥沙底质中排泄率平均为87．12l(μgNH_3-N／g干重．h)，在无泥沙底质中排泄率平均为58．354(μgNH_3-N／g干重．h)。蛤仔在泥沙环境中呼吸率和排泄率都明显升高。

Bioenergetic responses of sub-adult sea cucumber Apostichopus japonicus (Selenka) (Echinodermata: Holothuroidea) to temperature with special discussion regarding its southernmost distribution limit in China

1. This paper investigated the bioenergetic responses of the sea cucumber Apostichopus japonicus (wet weights of 36.5 +/- 1.2 g) to different water temperatures (5, 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30 degrees C) in the laboratory. 2. Results showed that theoretically the optimal temperatures for energy intake and scope for growth (SFG) of sub-adult A. japonicus was at 15.6 and 16.0 degrees C, respectively. The aestivation threshold temperature for this life-stage sea cucumber could be 29.0 degrees C by taking feeding cessation as the indication of aestivation. 3. Our data suggests that A. japonicus is thermo-sensitive to higher temperature, which prevents it from colonising sub-tropical coastal zones. Therefore, water temperature plays an important role in its southernmost distribution limit in China. 4. The potential impact of global ocean warming on A. japonicus might be a northward shift in the geographical distribution. Crown Copyright (C) 2009 Published by Elsevier Ltd, All rights reserved.

Feeding activities of zooplankton in the Bohai Sea

The Bohai Sea was the site of the Chinese national GLOBEC programme. During the June 1997 cruises of R/V Science No.1, observations and experiments on zooplankton feeding were conducted. At five 48 h time-series stations the following observations and measurements on zooplankton were carried out: (1) diurnal vertical migration, by collecting samples at different layers every 3 h with a closing net; (2) diurnal feeding rhythms, by gut pigment analysis; and (3) ingestion rate, by both gut pigment analysis and the dilution method. A classification by body size was used to deal with the diversity of species and developmental stages of zooplankton assemblages. Samples were separated into three size groups: small (200-500 mu m), medium (500-1000 mu m) and large (> 1000 mu m). The results showed that the copepods (Calanus sinicus, Paracalanus parvus, Acartia bifilosa and Centropages mcmurrichi) performed clear diurnal vertical migrations. However, their behaviour was different at different stations. The variation in gut pigment content over the 24 h cycle showed strong diurnal feeding rhythms, particularly for the large size group. Gut pigment contents reached their daily maximum during the time from dusk to midnight (18:00-24:00). The peak value was about 10 times the minimum observed in the daytime. The in situ daily grazing rate, based on gut pigment contents and evacuation experiments, was 4.00-12.65 ng chla ind(-1) day(-1) for the small size group, 5.99-66.58 ng chla ind(-1) day(-1) for the medium size group and 31.31-237.13 ng chla ind(-1) day(-1) for the large size group. The copepods consumed only a small part (2.90-13.52%) of the phytoplankton biomass hut about 77% of the daily production. The grazing mortality rate of phytoplankton by microzooplankton (<200 mu m) measured by the dilution method ranged from 0.43 to 0.69 day(-1) The calculated daily consumption of phytoplankton biomass was 35-50%, and 85-319% of the potential production.

C, N and P regeneration by a detritivorous fish, Liza haematocheila T. & S.: effects of temperature, diet and body size

Detritus, as a nutrients reservoir, affects the trophic structure and dynamics of communities and supports a greater diversity of species and longer food chains. Detritivorous fish is an important organism to regenerate the nutrients from sediments. Despite the numerous studies on the nutrients cycle in fish, only a few attempts have been made to quantify the regenerating ability. In the present study, we chose the common detritivorous fish redeye mullet as the research object. Redeye mullet is also a common poly-culture fish in China. Diet, including a commercial diet mostly used in aquaculture and a home-made diet with contents close to detritus, was used and considered as a fixed factor. Temperature was also considered as a fixed factor as much research has shown that temperature has significant effects on fish metabolism. Moreover, body size was regarded as a covariate under analysis of covariance. Three key nutrients, namely carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus, were used to measure the nutrient-regenerating ability of redeye mullet under laboratory conditions. The results showed that the nutrient regeneration in percent of the consumption decreased with increasing temperature. Carbon and nitrogen regeneration of redeye mullet fed on commercial diet was lower than those of the home-made diet group, while the opposite was found for phosphorus. In each group, the amount of regenerated nutrients increased linearly with body size. Fed on the home-made diet, 5-g fish at 25 degrees C can regenerate 210.822 mg C, 37.533 mg N and 0.727 mg P per day.

Community structure and seasonal dynamics of planktonic ciliates along salinity gradients

The ciliate community structure and seasonal dynamics in a solar saltern of the Yellow Sea were studied based oil 4 sampling dates and 8 stations with salinities from 27.7 parts per thousand to 311.0 parts per thousand. The effects of the type and concentration of the fixative used (Lugol's and Bouin's) were tested at the first sampling date. Fixative type and fixative concentration had significant effects on ciliate abundance and blovolume, with 1% Lugol's giving the best results. A detailed investigation using live observations and protargol staining techniques revealed a total of 98 morphospecies from 8 sampling stations. There was obvious seasonal variation in species composition at most of the stations, but this tended to be less distinct with increasing salinity, as the dominant ciliate group shifted from oligotrichs to heterotrichs. Ciliate abundance varied from 4.40 x 10(1) to 2.11 x 10(5) cells l(-1) and biomass ranged between 2.39 and 9.87 x 10(3) mu g Cl-1 (at a salinity of 147.6 parts per thousand). Both abundance and biomass decreased abruptly when salinity exceeded 100-150 parts per thousand. Statistical analyses Suggested that the dynamics of ciliate abundance and biomass were regulated by both salinity and by season, but those of diversity and species richness were mainly controlled by salinity and both significantly decreased with increasing salinity. (C) 2009 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.

On two species of euxanthine crabs from the South China Sea, including a description of a new species of Crosnierius (Crustacea : Decapoda : Brachyura : Xanthidae)

A new species of the previously monotypic xanthid genus Crosnierius Serene & Vadon, 1981 is described from the South China Sea. The species differs from Crosnierius carinatus Serene & Vadon, 1981 in the structure of the anterolateral teeth, ambulatory leg proportions and form of the male first pleopod. Paramedaeus planifrons (Sakai, 1965) is also reported from the South China Sea, the first record of the species outside its type locality of Japan.

青海湖地区盐地凤毛菊群落优势种群分布格局研究

以青海省三角城种羊场地区典型的盐地凤毛菊(Saussurea salsa)盐碱草甸为研究对象,采用相邻格子样方法取样,应用方差/均值比率法、负二项参数K、扩散系数C、Cassie指标、丛生指标Ⅰ、平均拥挤度与聚块性指标等方法,研究了青海湖地区盐地凤毛菊群落优势种群的空间分布格局.结果表明,盐地凤毛菊群落优势种群的空间格局均为集群分布,这主要与物种本身的生态和生物学特性有关.

海北高寒灌丛草甸生态系统CO2释放速率的季节变化规律

在中国科学院海北高寒草甸生态系统定位站干柴滩地区以金露梅Potentilla fruticosa灌丛草甸生态系统为研究对象,应用静态密闭箱-气相色谱法对高寒灌丛(GG)、丛内草甸(GC)和次生裸地(GL)的CO2释放速率进行了长期观测,并对年释放量作了初步估测.结果表明,GG,GC和GL CO2的释放速率在一年内有明显的季节变化.植物生长季CO2释放量明显高于枯黄期,释放速率GG>GC>GL(P＜0.01),且均表现为正排放.不同季节CO2释放存在明显差异,表现为夏季＞秋季＞春季＞冬季.2003年6月30日至2004年6月28日,高寒灌丛植被-土壤系统CO2释放量为4 293.63±955.75 g/m2,丛内草甸植被-土壤系统CO2释放量为3 319.68±806.19 g/m2,裸地CO2的释放量为1 724.14±444.14 g/m2.CO2释放速率的季节变化与土壤5 cm温度呈显著正相关关系(P＜0.01).

海北高寒草甸的季节冻土及在植被生产力形成过程中的作用

海北高寒矮嵩草草甸区植被下的草毡寒冻雏形土属季节性冻土, 因温度低, 冻土在年内的每个月均可发生. 一般在11月中旬可形成稳定的季节冻结层, 至翌年3～4月冻土层厚度最大可达230 cm. 从3月下旬到4月中旬开始, 土壤开始消融, 至6月下旬到7月上旬冻土全部消失. 分析发现, 季节冻土在高寒草甸植被生产力形成过程中有着积极的影响作用, 主要表现在: 1)季节冻土的存在和维持将给高寒植物生长提供良好的土壤水分, 对植物初期营养生长发育有利, 可弥补春夏之交时降水不足所引起的干旱胁迫影响; 2)季节冻土的长时间维持, 有利于植物残体和土壤有机质留存于土壤, 并随土壤冻结和融化过程发生迁移, 可提高土壤肥力; 3)较高的土壤水分有利于土壤胡敏酸的形成, 可保证植物生长所需的其它有机元素的供给; 4)冻土层所形成较高的土壤水分使土体热容量加大, 从而调节因气候异常波动引起的土壤温度变化; 5)季节冻土的变化对植物地上年生产量形成有一定的影响作用, 表现出从10月或11月开始, 土壤冻结速率快, 对提高植物地上年生产量有利. 这也证实, 在未来气候变暖的趋势下, 土壤有机质将加快分解速度, 土壤水分因受温度升高 , 冻结期缩短, 其贮存能力降低; 受温度升高的影响, 地表蒸发能力加大, 若降水仍保持目前的水平, 土壤水分将明显减少, 将导致高寒草甸植被生产力有下降的可能.

捕食风险对高原鼠兔行为的影响

我们在野外条件下利用赤狐的粪尿增加高原鼠兔的捕食风险，采用目标动物抽样法对高原鼠兔的5种行为进行观察，分析天敌动物气味增加与天敌动物数量增加对高原鼠兔行为影响的差异，探讨高原鼠兔对捕食风险的权衡能力及面对不同风险的行为决策。2001年，在捕食风险处理样方中观察雄性成体18只，雌性成体25只，雄性幼体35只和雌性幼体42只，在对照样方中观察雄性成体14只，雌性成体15只，雄性幼体22只和雌性幼体11只；2002年，在捕食风险处理样方中观察雄性成体7只，雌性成体12只，在对照样方中观察雄性成体8只，雌性成体15只。研究结果表明：增加赤狐的气味后，高原鼠兔通过改变行为策略以适应捕食风险的增加。当气味源刚放入后，与对照样方比较，高原鼠兔明显增加了观察和呜叫的频次，相应减少了取食的频次，且随着时间的推移，高原鼠兔并未对气味产生适应性。当天敌动物的数量增加后，赤狐气味的增加对高原鼠兔行为的影响较小，在捕食风险超出高原鼠兔的耐受范围时，高原鼠兔扩散。同时，高原鼠兔的行为在雌雄之间、成体与幼体之间没有明显的不同，雌雄个体、成幼体均采用相同的行为策略减小捕食风险。以上结果表明：捕食风险明显影响高原鼠兔的行为，高原鼠兔能够权衡捕食风险的大小，并依据风险水平的高低采用相应的行为策略，其行为调节符合捕食风险时间分配的假说。