Composition and stability of organic matter fractions in soils under different land use regimes

Soil organic matter (SOM) vitally impacts all soil functions and plays a key role in the global carbon (C) cycle. More than 70% of the terrestric C stocks that participate in the active C cycle are stored in the soil. Therefore, quantitative knowledge of the rates of C incorporation into SOM fractions of different residence time is crucial to understand and predict the sequestration and stabilization of soil organic carbon (SOC). Consequently, there is a need of fractionation procedures that are capable of isolating functionally SOM fractions, i.e. fractions that are defined by their stability. The literature generally refers to three main mechanisms of SOM stabilization: protection of SOM from decomposition by (i) its structural composition, i.e. recalcitrance, (ii) spatial inaccessibility and/or (iii) interaction with soil minerals and metal ions. One of the difficulties in developing fractionation procedures for the isolation of functional SOM fractions is the marked heterogeneity of the soil environment with its various stabilization mechanisms – often several mechanisms operating simultaneously – in soils and soil horizons of different texture and mineralogy. The overall objective of the present thesis was to evaluate present fractionation techniques and to get a better understanding of the factors of SOM sequestration and stabilization. The first part of this study is attended to the structural composition of SOM. Using 13C cross-polarization magic-angle spinning (CPMAS) nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, (i) the effect of land use on SOM composition was investigated and (ii) examined whether SOM composition contributes to the different stability of SOM in density and aggregate fractions. The second part of the present work deals with the mineral-associated SOM fraction. The aim was (iii) to evaluate the suitability of chemical fractionation procedures used in the literature for the isolation of stable SOM pools (stepwise hydrolysis, treatments using oxidizing agents like Na2S2O8, H2O2, and NaOCl as well as demineralization of the residue obtained by the NaOCl treatment using HF (NaOCl+HF)) by pool sizes, 13C and 14C data. Further, (iv) the isolated SOM fractions were compared to the inert organic matter (IOM) pool obtained for the investigated soils using the Rothamsted Carbon Model and isotope data in order to see whether the tested chemical fractionation methods produce SOM fractions capable to represent this pool. Besides chemical fractionation, (v) the suitability of thermal oxidation at different temperatures for obtaining stable SOC pools was evaluated. Finally, (vi) the short-term aggregate dynamics and the factors that impact macroaggregate formation and C stabilization were investigated by means of an incubation study using treatments with and without application of 15N labeled maize straw of different degradability (leaves and coarse roots). All treatments were conducted with and without the addition of fungicide. Two study sites with different soil properties and land managements were chosen for these investigations. The first one, located at Rotthalmünster, is a Stagnic Luvisol (silty loam) under different land use regimes. The Ah horizons of a spruce forest and continuous grassland and the Ap and E horizons of two plots with arable crops (continuous maize and wheat cropping) were examined. The soil of the second study site, located at Halle, is a Haplic Phaeozem (loamy sand) where the Ap horizons of two plots with arable crops (continuous maize and rye cropping) were investigated. Both study sites had a C3-/C4-vegetational change on the maize plot for the purpose of tracing the incorporation of the younger, maize-derived C into different SOM fractions and the calculation of apparent C turnover times of these. The Halle site is located near a train station and industrial areas, which caused a contamination with high amounts of fossil C. The investigation of aggregate and density fractions by 13C CPMAS NMR spectroscopy revealed that density fractionation isolated SOM fractions of different composition. The consumption of a considerable part (10–20%) of the easily available O-alkyl-C and the selective preservation of the more recalcitrant alkyl-C when passing from litter to the different particulate organic matter (POM) fractions suggest that density fractionation was able to isolate SOM fractions with different degrees of decomposition. The spectra of the aggregate fractions resembled those of the mineral-associated SOM fraction obtained by density fractionation and no considerable differences were observed between aggregate size classes. Comparison of plant litter, density and aggregate size fractions from soil under different land use showed that the type of land use markedly influenced the composition of SOM. While SOM of the acid forest soil was characterized by a large content (> 50%) of POM, which contained high amounts of spruce-litter derived alkyl-C, the organic matter in the biologically more active grassland and arable soils was dominated by mineral-associated SOM (> 95%). This SOM fraction comprised greater proportions of aryl- and carbonyl-C and is considered to contain a higher amount of microbially-derived organic substances. Land use can alter both, structure and stability of SOM fractions. All applied chemical treatments induced considerable SOC losses (> 70–95% of mineral-associated SOM) in the investigated soils. The proportion of residual C after chemical fractionation was largest in the arable Ap and E horizons and increased with decreasing C content in the initial SOC after stepwise hydrolysis as well as after the oxidative treatments with H2O2 and Na2S2O8. This can be expected for a functional stable pool of SOM, because it is assumed that the more easily available part of SOC is consumed first if C inputs decrease. All chemical treatments led to a preferential loss of the younger, maize-derived SOC, but this was most pronounced after the treatments with Na2S2O8 and H2O2. After all chemical fractionations, the mean 14C ages of SOC were higher than in the mineral-associated SOM fraction for both study sites and increased in the order: NaOCl < NaOCl+HF ≤ stepwise hydrolysis << H2O2 ≈ Na2S2O8. The results suggest that all treatments were capable of isolating a more stable SOM fraction, but the treatments with H2O2 and Na2S2O8 were the most efficient ones. However, none of the chemical fractionation methods was able to fit the IOM pool calculated using the Rothamsted Carbon Model and isotope data. In the evaluation of thermal oxidation for obtaining stable C fractions, SOC losses increased with temperature from 24–48% (200°C) to 100% (500°C). In the Halle maize Ap horizon, losses of the young, maize-derived C were considerably higher than losses of the older C3-derived C, leading to an increase in the apparent C turnover time from 220 years in mineral-associated SOC to 1158 years after thermal oxidation at 300°C. Most likely, the preferential loss of maize-derived C in the Halle soil was caused by the presence of the high amounts of fossil C mentioned above, which make up a relatively large thermally stable C3-C pool in this soil. This agrees with lower overall SOC losses for the Halle Ap horizon compared to the Rotthalmünster Ap horizon. In the Rotthalmünster soil only slightly more maize-derived than C3-derived SOC was removed by thermal oxidation. Apparent C turnover times increased slightly from 58 years in mineral-associated SOC to 77 years after thermal oxidation at 300°C in the Rotthalmünster Ap and from 151 to 247 years in the Rotthalmünster E horizon. This led to the conclusion that thermal oxidation of SOM was not capable of isolating SOM fractions of considerably higher stability. The incubation experiment showed that macroaggregates develop rapidly after the addition of easily available plant residues. Within the first four weeks of incubation, the maximum aggregation was reached in all treatments without addition of fungicide. The formation of water-stable macroaggregates was related to the size of the microbial biomass pool and its activity. Furthermore, fungi were found to be crucial for the development of soil macroaggregates as the formation of water-stable macroaggregates was significantly delayed in the fungicide treated soils. The C concentration in the obtained aggregate fractions decreased with decreasing aggregate size class, which is in line with the aggregate hierarchy postulated by several authors for soils with SOM as the major binding agent. Macroaggregation involved incorporation of large amounts maize-derived organic matter, but macroaggregates did not play the most important role in the stabilization of maize-derived SOM, because of their relatively low amount (less than 10% of the soil mass). Furthermore, the maize-derived organic matter was quickly incorporated into all aggregate size classes. The microaggregate fraction stored the largest quantities of maize-derived C and N – up to 70% of the residual maize-C and -N were stored in this fraction.

Molekulare Systematik der Gattung Suaeda (Chenopodiaceae) und Evolution des C4-Photosynthesesyndroms

Mit der vorliegenden Arbeit wird eine Synthese aus molekularer Phylogenie und Merkmalsentwicklung für die Unterfamilie Suaedoideae der Chenopodiaceae präsentiert. Anhand von rekonstruierten Stammbäumen aus den Sequenzunterschieden von DNA-Abschnitten zweier unabhängiger Genome (Kern, Chloroplast) werden monophyletische Gruppen herausgearbeitet und die Variabilität der molekularen Merkmale in Bezug auf die bekannten Arten diskutiert. Insgesamt wurden für alle molekularen Analysen 294 Sequenzen ausgewertet. Mit 254 Sequenzen von Arten der Unterfamilie Suaedoideae und 18 Sequenzen von Arten der Unterfamilie Salicornioideae wurde eine vergleichende molekulare Analyse mit den DNA-Regionen ITS, atpB-rbcL und psbB-psbH durchgeführt. Mit der Einbeziehung von ca. 65 bekannten Suaeda-Arten sind damit je nach Artauffassung bis zu 80% aller Arten der Gattung berücksichtigt. Mittels Fossildaten werden die wichtigsten Divergenzereignisse zeitlich fixiert. Die molekularen Stammbäume dienen weiterhin als Grundlage für die Bewertung der Arten sowie ihrer morphologischen und anatomischen Merkmale. Ein wichtiger Aspekt bildet dabei die Entwicklung der C4-Photosynthese mit den zugehörigen Blatttypen. Die folgenden vier Themenkomplexe bzw. Fragestellungen sollten bearbeitet werden (für ausführliche Darstellung vgl. Kap. 1.3): 1. Monophyletische Gruppen und ihre Beziehungen 2. Prinzipien der Evolution und Artbildung in der untersuchten Gruppe, Abgrenzung der Arten. 3. Entwicklung des C4-Photosynthesesyndroms 4. Entwicklung und Variabilität systematisch relevanter Merkmale Die Ergebnisse der auf vergleichender DNA-Sequenzierung beruhenden molekularen Analyse und die Synthese mit weiteren Daten führen als Resultat der vorliegenden Arbeit zusammenfassend zu folgenden Ergebnissen: 1.) Die drei sequenzierten DNA-Regionen ITS, atpB-rbcL und psbB-psbH zeigen im Vergleich eine sehr unterschiedliche Variabilität, ITS ist die variabelste aller Regionen. Die in den Alignments gefundenen Merkmale in Form von Punkt- und Längenmutationen zwischen den Einzelsequenzen waren zahlenmäßig ausreichend und qualitativ geeignet, um mit den drei Verfahren Maximum Parsimony, Maximum Likelihood und Bayes’scher Analyse aussagekräftige und in wesentlichen Aussagen kongruente molekulare Phylogenien zu rekonstruieren. Die Chloroplasten-Daten wurden für die Berechnungen kombiniert. 2.) Die beiden DNA-Regionen ITS und atpB-rbcL evolvieren mit sehr unterschiedlichen Geschwindigkeiten. Die mit der Glättungsmethode PL berechneten durchschnittlichen Substitutionsraten weisen für ITS eine 5,5fach höhere Substitutionsrate gegenüber atpB-rbcL nach. Die ITS-Sequenzen sind daher wesentlich diverser und für einige Sippen, bei identischen atpB-rbcL-Sequenzen, unterschiedlich. Eine direkte Homologisierung von molekularer und morphologischer Variabilität oder die molekulare Limitierung von Arten ist daher nur in einigen Fällen möglich. 3.) Die Gattungen Suaeda, Alexandra und Borszczowia bilden eine monophyletische Gruppe, die den Salicornioideae als Schwestergruppe gegenübersteht. Dies bestätigt die Ergebnisse der Phylogenie der Chenopodiaceae (Kadereit et al. 2003). Im traditionellen Verständnis ist damit die Gattung Suaeda paraphyletisch. Durch taxonomische Umkombination (Schütze et al. 2003. Kapralov et al. 2006) werden die Gattungen Alexandra und Borszczowia in Suaeda eingegliedert, womit das Monophylie-Kriterium für die Gattung wieder erfüllt ist. Die molekularen Daten unterstützen diese nomenklatorische Neubewertung. Der nachfolgend verwendete Gattungsname Suaeda bezieht sich auf die neue Fassung. 4.) Bienertia gehört nicht in die unter 2.) beschriebene monophyletische Gruppe. Die Stellung dieser Gattung ist intermediär. Im ITS-Baum bildet sie die Schwestergruppe zu den Salicornioideae, im Chloroplasten-Baum diejenige zu Suaeda. Da Bienertia aufgrund morphologischer Merkmale Suaeda ähnlicher ist als den Salicornioideae wird sie in die intern neu gegliederte Unterfamilie der Suaedoideae einbezogen, die weitgehend der in Ulbrich (1934) vertretenen Auffassung entspricht. 5.) Suaeda teilt sich in zwei sehr deutlich getrennte Gruppen, die in einer neuen Gliederung als Untergattungen Brezia und Suaeda definiert werden. Die Trennung datiert mit etwa 30 Mio. Jahren in das Oligozän. Zur Untergattung Brezia gehören alle Arten der Sektion Brezia nach bisheriger taxonomischer Auffassung, die Untergattung Suaeda vereint alle übrigen Arten und wird in weitere Sektionen untergliedert. 6.) Die Untergattung bzw. Sektion Brezia zeigt im ITS-Baum eine deutliche Dreigliederung in 3 Subclades, die allerdings von den Chloroplasten-Bäumen nicht verifiziert wird und auch durch morphologische Merkmale nicht zu rechtfertigen ist. Die Subclades der Untergattung Suaeda entsprechen in Grundzügen den bisherigen Sektionen und sind durch synapomorphe Merkmale gekennzeichnet. Für die Gattung Suaeda leiten sich nach monophyletischen Gruppen oder singulären Linien folgende Sektionen ab: Brezia, Alexandra, Borszczowia, Schanginia, Schoberia Salsina (inkl. der früheren Sektionen Limbogermen, Immersa und Macrosuaeda), Suaeda, Physophora und Glauca (neu). 7.) Hybridisierung und Polyploidisierung sind wichtige Prozesse der sympatrischen Artbildung innerhalb der Suaedoideae und waren wahrscheinlich immer mit Arealerweiterungen gekoppelt. Mehrere Linien sind durch Vervielfachung des Chromosomensatzes charakterisiert, wobei auch die recht seltene Form der Dekaploidie erreicht wird. Vieles spricht dafür, dass sowohl Auto- als auch Allopolyploidie eine Rolle spielt. Auf Autopolyplodie beruhen höchstwahrscheinlich die unterschiedlichen Chromosomenrassen von S. corniculata. Durch Inkongruenzen zwischen Chloroplasten- und ITS (Kern)-Stammbäumen konnten einige Arten mit hoher Wahrscheinlichkeit als etablierte, allopolyploide Hybridsippen identifiziert werden (Suaeda kulundensis, S. sibirica). Es ist damit erwiesen, dass die Diversifizierung durch retikulate Evolution beeinflusst wird. 8.) Die Ergebnisse der molekularen Phylogenien belegen sehr deutlich, dass sich die C4-Photosynthese innerhalb der Suaedoideae viermal unabhängig mit vier vollkommen unterschiedlichen Blatttypen entwickelt hat. Dazu gehören zwei Blatttypen mit single cell C4-photosynthesis, ein bis vor kurzem bei Landpflanzen unbekanntes Phänomen. Innerhalb der Sektionen Schoberia, Salsina und Borszczowia datiert die Entstehung in das späte Miozän, bei Bienertia entstand die C4-Photosynthese möglicherweise noch früher. 9.) Als systematisch äußerst bedeutsame Merkmale haben sich die schon von Iljin (1936a) benutzten Pistill-Formen sowie spezifische Blattmerkmale herausgestellt. Mit diesen Merkmalen können Sektionen, die auf monophyletischen Gruppen beruhen, gut definiert werden. Synapomorphe Merkmale des Pistills sind die Zahl und Ausbildung der Narben sowie die Form ihrer Insertion im Ovar. Bei den Blatttypen sind es vor allem die vier histologisch hoch differenzierten C4-Blatttypen, die als gemeinsam abgeleitetes Merkmal rezenter, teilweise aufgespaltener Linien gewertet werden. 10.) Die früher z.T. überbewerteten Merkmale des Perianths (Verwachsungen, Flügel, Anhänge und Umbildungen) können nur zur Beschreibung einzelner Sippen oder lokaler Gruppen herangezogen werden. Ebenso ist das Merkmal der Lebensformen (Therophyten, Chamaephyten) kaum zur Charakterisierung von Gruppen geeignet. Wie das Beispiel Brezia sehr deutlich zeigt, kam es allein in dieser Gruppe mehrfach zur Entwicklung ausdauernder, verholzender Sippen. Der umgekehrte Prozess fand bei der Entstehung der annuellen S. aegyptiaca und S. arcuata statt. Mit Hilfe von DNA-basierten Stammbäumen ist es in der vorliegenden Arbeit möglich geworden, die evolutionäre Geschichte der Gattung nachzuzeichnen und eine auf monophyletischen Gruppen basierende Gliederung abzuleiten. Damit wird eine Grundlage für ein verbessertes Artkonzept der Gattung Suaeda geschaffen. Für die praktische Taxonomie ist dies aber nur teilweise bedeutend. Die morphologisch nachvollziehbare Abgrenzung von Arten bleibt, gerade in den diversen Sektionen Brezia und Salsina, umstritten und kaum nachvollziehbar. Ein Großteil der Arten hat offenbar keine interspezifischen Kompatibilitätsschranken, es handelt sich daher um Morpho- oder Semispecies, möglicherweise sogar nur geographische Rassen, die allerdings mit schnell evolvierenden DNA-Regionen wie ITS differenzierbar sind. Ausgehend von den Ergebnissen der vorliegenden Arbeit verbleibt genügend Raum für weiterführende, vertiefende systematische und populationsbiologische Studien.

La investigación en el aula : un ejemplo sobre expresión creativa.

Tratar las causas originadoras de ineficacia de la investigación en el campo educativo, aportando de forma simultánea y paralela diversas estrategias que pueden solucionar y evitar el estado de la cuestión. Las estrategias se basan en el estudio de la creatividad y el grado en que la poseen los alumnos, para adoptar así, medidas tendentes a estimular el logro de sus máximas posibilidades. 4 grupos de niños de 8 a 9 años integrados en tercer curso de EGB pertenecientes al Colegio Caja de Ahorros de Granada. La muestra total es de 151 alumnos. Se pasan diferentes tests a los alumnos para comprobar su grado de creatividad, que son posteriormente corregidos por los investigadores, haciéndose análisis comparativos entre los distintos grupos. Test de creatividad de Jose María Martínez Beltrán en cinco apartados: sub-test C1, de creatividad lúdica-instrumental; sub-test C2, test de causas imposibles; sub-test C3, test de LSO-círculos; sub-test C4, test de creatividad instrumental; sub-test C5, test de las fábulas. Técnica del test-retest; escala de intervalos; puntuaciones centiles; gráficas; análisis de varianza. De los 4 grupos de alumnos en que se divide la investigación se sacan como resultados: 1. Las diferencias entre los grupos A y B no son significativas, siendo los dos grupos prácticamente iguales en cuanto a creatividad. 2. Entre los grupos A y C, sí existen diferencias; los sujetos del grupo A, son más creativos que los del grupo C. 3. También existen diferencias entre los sujetos de los grupos A y D; los del grupo A, son más creativos que los del grupo D. 4. Los sujetos del grupo B son más creativos que los del grupo C y D. 5. Los sujetos del grupo C y D son igualmente creativos. 1. La diferencia es verdadera y significativa entre los grupos A y C, A y D, B y C, B y D. 2. Sería interesante y necesario buscar las causas de estas diferencias para potenciar aquellas que sean positivas, generadoras de creatividad y eliminar las que la contrarresten. 3. Habría que averiguar si en la actualidad se utilizan métodos distintos en los diversos grupos y su posible incidencia. 4. Averiguar cómo puede influir la actitud del profesorado ante la creatividad.

Revisión y análisis de las asociaciones de recicladores en Bogotá diseñando una estrategia de negocio para la valorización y reutilización de residuos sólidos

El presente documento se basa en el estudio de tres asociaciones que hacen parte del sector del reciclaje: Ecoalianza, Asociación de recicladores de Suba y Centro de reciclaje la Alquería, con la finalidad de conocer los efectos de la aplicación del Programa Basura Cero cuyo principal objetivo además de reestructurar el modelo de operación con las empresas privadas y cambiar el esquema tarifario y financiero, es el de institucionalizar la actividad del reciclaje en la ciudad; es decir, crear una política de reciclaje inclusivo en respuesta al artículo 275 del 2011 por decreto de la corte constitucional. A lo largo del documento, se describe la situación actual de las tres asociaciones teniendo en cuenta la legislación nacional y distrital de la ciudad de Bogotá en materia de reciclaje y los efectos que ésta ha tenido en el desarrollo del modelo de negocio. Adicionalmente y para complementar dicha investigación, se realizó un análisis DOFA, con el fin de conocer las debilidades, oportunidades, fortalezas y amenazas que tienen estas asociaciones como modelo de negocio. Finalmente, se incluyó una herramienta, que le permite a las asociaciones de recicladores llevar un control detallado de sus movimientos financieros como soporte y mecanismo de evaluación de la gestión de sus recursos. Se pretende adicionalmente examinar la percepción del negocio en materia legal, organizacional y financiera, al igual que sintetizar los alcances y limitaciones que tiene el modelo de negocio con respecto a la política pública

La construcción de la política exterior de Rusia hacia Serbia: entre el pragmatismo y el Eurasianismo (2007-2015)

Esta monografía defenderá que la Rusia contemporánea cuenta con una ideología formada a partir de los elementos imperiales y religiosos previos a la Unión Soviética además de elementos políticos propios de la URSS como la colectividad y la oposición a occidente. La Rusia de Putin ha recobrado sus capacidades para defender sus intereses en el mundo frente a la injerencia de occidente, y en el caso de Serbia esto se hará evidente a través de la importancia de los lazos culturales e históricos reforzados por los vínculos económicos y estratégicos que representa la presencia de Rusia en Serbia. Los principales autores sobre los que se trabajará son Alexander Dugin y Alexander Panarin.

El liderazgo carismático religioso como elemento fundamental en la permanencia del movimiento independiente de renovación absoluta (MIRA) en el panorama electoral colombiano (2000-2014)

El propósito de esta investigación es explorar los efectos del liderazgo carismático religioso sobre el desempeño electoral y la supervivencia del movimiento político MIRA en Colombia. Para ello, emplea una metodología cualitativa, que se vale principalmente de entrevistas a profundidad y observación no participante, para acercarse a las prácticas religiosas y a las actitudes políticas de los fieles de la Iglesia de Dios Ministerial de Jesucristo Internacional. A partir de la información recabada a lo largo de este estudio, se pretende demostrar que hay una relación entre el tamaño de la congregación religiosa y el número de votos que obtiene el movimiento MIRA. Ello, gracias a que el papel que María Luisa Piraquive desempeña dentro de la comunidad religiosa contribuye a la legitimación del accionar del movimiento político y al surgimiento de un voluntariado activo dentro de este, que se comporta disciplinada y comprometidamente con los objetivos de dicha organización.

Proyecto INCLUES : llaves para una educación inclusiva y cognitiva : proyecto europeo de redes subvencionado por la Acción Comenius del Programa Sócrates de la Comisión Europea 107855-CP-1-2003-1-BE-COMENIUS-C3.

Se presenta el proyecto INCLUES que tiene como objetivo la creación de una red europea de profesionales, colegios e instituciones de formación de profesorado para promover la educación inclusiva y cognitiva. Se trata, por tanto de integrar los niños con dificultades de aprendizaje por diversas causas, entre ellas, la discapacidad, modificando las pautas habituales de enseñanza. Se entiende por educación inclusiva aquella que defiende el derecho a una educación de calidad personalizada y adaptada a todos los niños, sin exclusión alguna; mientras que la educación cognitiva se refiere a las habilidades sociales, motoras, artísticas y emocionales del niño. El proyecto se justifica en la existencia de un movimiento mundial, con normas en algunos países europeos y en las demandas sociales para el acceso a la información, tecnología, vida económica y relaciones sociales. Se expone la falta de formación del profesorado en la inclusión, enseñanzas y evaluación; y la búsqueda de nuevos enfoques con una educación cognitiva-mediadora, utilizando la creatividad, la música y el arte. Las innovaciones de INCLUES están en la combinación de la inclusión con la activación cognitiva; el aprovechamiento y uso de la experiencia y práctica de los colegios específicos de educación especial; la difusión de una selección de métodos y enfoques eficaces; y la evaluación dinámica. Los antecedentes del proyecto se basan en otros: Helios II; Leonardo; Comenius; Equal; y en especial en el Proyecto Comenius de Desarrollo, y el Proyecto INSIDE que permite crear materiales y métodos. Se señala la variedad de destinatarios directos: entre otros los profesores; profesionales de rehabilitación y psicólogos; y destinatarios indirectos: alumnos en riesgo de fracaso escolar y niños con dificultades de aprendizaje general o específica. Se señalan algunas actividades que hay que poner en marcha como los foros de discusión en la web; revistas digitales cuatrimestrales; recopilaciones y publicaciones e intercambio de informaciones.

C1, C2, C3 : tres tipos de conocimiento útil.

Se trata de examinar los probables efectos de un creciente uso de ordenadores en la educación. Se centra en la división del conocimiento humano en dos clases: conocimiento uno (C1), que comprende todo lo que el hombre sabe; y conocimiento dos (C2), que consiste en todo conocimiento acumulado en libros y bibliotecas. A raíz de esto, se introduce un tercer conocimiento (C3): la informática, que se introduce con creciente rapidez en la sociedad. C3 supone un cambio radical en las industrias del país y tiene grandes repercusiones a través de toda la sociedad.

A record of Holocene climate change from lake geochemical analyses in southeastern Arabia

Lacustrine sediments from southeastern Arabia reveal variations in lake level corresponding to changes in the strength and duration of Indian Ocean Monsoon (IOM) summer rainfall and winter cyclonic rainfall. The late glacial/Holocene transition of the region was characterised by the development of mega-linear dunes. These dunes became stabilised and vegetated during the early Holocene and interdunal lakes formed in response to the incursion of the IOM at approximately 8500 cal yr BP with the development of C3 dominated savanna grasslands. The IOM weakened ca. 6000 cal yr BP with the onset of regional aridity, aeolian sedimentation and dune reactivation and accretion. Despite this reduction in precipitation, the take was maintained by winter dominated rainfall. There was a shift to drier adapted C4 grasslands across the dune field. Lake sediment geochemical analyses record precipitation minima at 8200, 5000 and 4200 cal yr BP that coincide with Bond events in the North Atlantic. A number of these events correspond with changes in cultural periods, suggesting that climate was a key mechanism affecting human occupation and exploitation of this region. (c) 2006 University of Washington. All rights reserved.

Analytical functions for the ground state potential surfaces of C3 (X 1 Σ g+) and HCN (X 1 Σ +)

Analytic functions have been obtained to represent the potential energy surfaces of C3 and HCN in their ground electronic states. These functions closely reproduce the available data on the energy, geometry, and force constants in all stable conformations, as well as data on the various dissociation products, and ab initio calculations of the energy at other conformations. The form of the resulting surfaces are portrayed in various ways and discussed briefly.

Cultivating C4 crops in a changing climate: sugarcane in Ghana

Over the next few decades, it is expected that increasing fossil fuel prices will lead to a proliferation of energy crop cultivation initiatives. The environmental sustainability of these activities is thus a pressing issue—particularly when they take place in vulnerable regions, such as West Africa. In more general terms, the effect of increased CO2 concentrations and higher temperatures on biomass production and evapotranspiration affects the evolution of the global hydrological and carbon cycles. Investigating these processes for a C4 crop, such as sugarcane, thus provides an opportunity both to extend our understanding of the impact of climate change, and to assess our capacity to model the underpinning processes. This paper applies a process-based crop model to sugarcane in Ghana (where cultivation is planned), and the São Paulo region of Brazil (which has a well-established sugarcane industry). We show that, in the Daka River region of Ghana, provided there is sufficient irrigation, it is possible to generate approximately 75% of the yield achieved in the São Paulo region. In the final part of the study, the production of sugarcane under an idealized temperature increase climate change scenario is explored. It is shown that doubling CO2 mitigates the degree of water stress associated with a 4 °C increase in temperature.

Stable isotope and modelling evidence for CO2 as a driver of glacial–interglacial vegetation shifts in southern Africa

Atmospheric CO2 concentration is hypothesized to influence vegetation distribution via tree–grass competition, with higher CO2 concentrations favouring trees. The stable carbon isotope (δ13C) signature of vegetation is influenced by the relative importance of C4 plants (including most tropical grasses) and C3 plants (including nearly all trees), and the degree of stomatal closure – a response to aridity – in C3 plants. Compound-specific δ13C analyses of leaf-wax biomarkers in sediment cores of an offshore South Atlantic transect are used here as a record of vegetation changes in subequatorial Africa. These data suggest a large increase in C3 relative to C4 plant dominance after the Last Glacial Maximum. Using a process-based biogeography model that explicitly simulates 13C discrimination, it is shown that precipitation and temperature changes cannot explain the observed shift in δ13C values. The physiological effect of increasing CO2 concentration is decisive, altering the C3/C4 balance and bringing the simulated and observed δ13C values into line. It is concluded that CO2 concentration itself was a key agent of vegetation change in tropical southern Africa during the last glacial–interglacial transition. Two additional inferences follow. First, long-term variations in terrestrial δ13Cvalues are not simply a proxy for regional rainfall, as has sometimes been assumed. Although precipitation and temperature changes have had major effects on vegetation in many regions of the world during the period between the Last Glacial Maximum and recent times, CO2 effects must also be taken into account, especially when reconstructing changes in climate between glacial and interglacial states. Second, rising CO2 concentration today is likely to be influencing tree–grass competition in a similar way, and thus contributing to the "woody thickening" observed in savannas worldwide. This second inference points to the importance of experiments to determine how vegetation composition in savannas is likely to be influenced by the continuing rise of CO2 concentration.

Palaeobiology of the medieval population of Albano (Rome, Italy): a combined morphological and biomolecular approach

Recent years have seen increased interest in skeletal populations from the Imperial Roman Age in Italy, but much less is known about diet and standards of living in the subsequent medieval period. To fill this gap, we conducted a morphological analysis of human remains from Albano, an Italian town near Rome, as well as a stable isotope analysis of bone collagen to reconstruct diet. The sample was recovered from a Medieval cemetery (1040–1220 cal. yr. BP) located in the gardens of the historical Palazzo Doria Pamphili in Albano. A minimum number of 40 individuals (31 adults and 9 sub-adults) were examined using standard methods. Though the general health status of the population was good, signs of cribra orbitalia and diffuse enthesopathies were noted during the morphological examination. Stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analyses of the bone collagen from 24 adult humans and three faunal bones indicate that the diet of the population may be described as predominantly terrestrial and C3-plant based although the data for some of the individuals suggest a modest consumption of C4-(millet) based or aquatic proteins. No evidence of significant dietary differences between the sexes was found. The comparison of the isotope data from Albano with those from populations recovered in the same region is consistent with a shift from a terrestrial, possibly plant foods-dominated subsistence in the Early Middle Ages to a diet with a higher contribution from animal proteins, both terrestrial and aquatic, in the Later Middle Ages.

In vitro evaluation of the fermentation properties and potential probiotic activity of Lactobacillus plantarum C4 in batch culture systems

Lactobacillus plantarum C4 has been tested in in vitro pH-controlled anaerobic faecal batch cultures as compared to Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG to determine changes caused to the composition of faecal bacteria. Effects upon major groups of the microbiota and levels of short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) were assessed over 24 h. Concomitantly, hydrophobic character and ability of both bacterial cells to adhere in vitro to Caco-2 cells were investigated. Quantitative analysis of bacterial populations revealed that there was a significant increase in Lactobacillus/Enterococcus numbers in vessels with probiotic supplemented with fructooligosaccharides (FOS), compared to the negative control. L. plantarum C4 showed to have more hydrophilic behaviour and fulfilled better adhesive properties, compared to L. rhamnosus GG. Thus, L. plantarum C4 can modulate the intestinal microbiota in vitro, promoting changes in some numerically and metabolically relevant microbial populations and shifts in the production of SCFA.

Effects of past climate variability on fire and vegetation in the cerrãdo savanna of the Huanchaca Mesetta, NE Bolivia

Cerrãdo savannas have the greatest fire activity of all major global land-cover types and play a significant role in the global carbon cycle. During the 21st century, temperatures are projected to increase by ∼ 3 ◦C coupled with a precipitation decrease of ∼ 20 %. Although these conditions could potentially intensify drought stress, it is unknown how that might alter vegetation composition and fire regimes. To assess how Neotropical savannas responded to past climate changes, a 14 500-year, high-resolution, sedimentary record from Huanchaca Mesetta, a palm swamp located in the cerrãdo savanna in northeastern Bolivia, was analyzed with phytoliths, stable isotopes, and charcoal. A nonanalogue, cold-adapted vegetation community dominated the Lateglacial–early Holocene period (14 500–9000 cal yr BP, which included trees and C3 Pooideae and C4 Panicoideae grasses. The Lateglacial vegetation was fire-sensitive and fire activity during this period was low, likely responding to fuel availability and limitation. Although similar vegetation characterized the early Holocene, the warming conditions associated with the onset of the Holocene led to an initial increase in fire activity. Huanchaca Mesetta became increasingly firedependent during the middle Holocene with the expansion of C4 fire-adapted grasses. However, as warm, dry conditions, characterized by increased length and severity of the dry season, continued, fuel availability decreased. The establishment of the modern palm swamp vegetation occurred at 5000 cal yr BP. Edaphic factors are the first-order control on vegetation on the rocky quartzite mesetta. Where soils are sufficiently thick, climate is the second-order control of vegetation on the mesetta. The presence of the modern palm swamp is attributed to two factors: (1) increased precipitation that increased water table levels and (2) decreased frequency and duration of surazos (cold wind incursions from Patagonia) leading to increased temperature minima. Natural (soil, climate, fire) drivers rather than anthropogenic drivers control the vegetation and fire activity at Huanchaca Mesetta. Thus the cerrãdo savanna ecosystem of the Huanchaca Plateau has exhibited ecosystem resilience to major climatic changes in both temperature and precipitation since the Lateglacial period.