Informe sobre la evolución de las emigraciones del Perú a España. Repercusiones en el mercado de trabajo peruano y tendencias de futuro en los próximos 10 años

Este informe pretende analizar los antecedentes de la migración internacional con la crisis económica, y de manera específica, la estructura del empleo en el Perú y cómo éste afecta y afectará la emigración. A continuación presento el contenido del informe el que tiene cuatro partes mutuamente complementarias: Primero.- Evolución de la emigración peruana en los últimos 17 años desde 1990 al2007. Para el efecto se utilizan datos oficiales para analizar las características sociodemográficas de la migración. Segundo.- Se analizan los impactos de la emigración en el mercado de trabajo y los acontecimientos que sucedieron en los dos últimos años, fecha en la que la migración empieza a ser afectada por la crisis económica, en particular en el último año. Para el efecto, acompañamos datos del censo de población y vivienda y el censo económico del 2007 elaborado por el Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática (INEI) del gobierno peruano. Tercero.- Se analiza la relación entre la migración y las redes sociales de los migrantes con sus familiares y las asociaciones de migrantes. Los datos para esta parte del informe están basados en entrevistas informales a familiares, a retornantes, a potenciales migrantes.; además uso datos de un estudio previo que desarrollé en el año 1998 y 1999 sobre las asociaciones de peruanos en España. Cuarto.- Presento los posibles escenarios futuros en los próximos años a la luz de los cambios, las tendencias y los hechos que sucedieron en los últimos 19 años. Se pone especial énfasis a o que puede suceder en el campo laboral, el retorno de migrantes a sus países y el comportamiento de las remesas y su impacto en la economía doméstica de las familias que los reciben.

Alguns aspectos da política nacional de ciência e tecnologia

The Brazilian industrialisation process, which occurred from World War II up to the early eighties, was almost totally based on imported technology and has thus not demanded local S&T capability. National S&T expenditures were limited to 0.7 % of the GNP, covering mainly expenses with basic research and training of scientists and engineers. Federal Government was then responsible for 90% of the national S&T expenditures. The globalisation of the economy, associated with the reduction of tariff barriers, has, since the early nineties, exposed Brazilian industries to international competition and, thus, forced them to invest in research and development. S&T policy fosters research activities, provides research infrastructure and human resources training. The goal is to raise national expenditures to 1.5% of GDP by 1999, with a share of the private sector of about 40%. In 1996, national S&T expenditures have already attained 1.1% of the GDP and private sector investments in this area reached a share of 30%.

Juventud, trabajo y desempleo en los prolegómenos de la crisis económica en España. Reflexiones críticas

La elevada y preocupante cifra de desempleo juvenil hoy día en España invita a reflexionar sobre cómo era esta situación en los prolegómenos de la actual crisis económica y social. En el presente artículo se analiza y reflexiona si tras la explicación predominante, basada en la responsabilización del joven, se eludían otros aspectos interesantes a tener en cuenta. Para ello se aplica una metodología variada, basada en la revisión estadística y documental, complementada con observación participante y entrevistas (semiestructuradas y estructuradas) a jóvenes (16-19 años), a profesionales del ámbito educativo-ocupacional y a responsables de la administración local. La principal aportación realizada es, por un lado, la identificación, a partir del análisis empírico, de algunas reflexiones en torno a elementos que cuestionan el discurso culpabilizador hacia el joven, y por otro lado, la presentación de elementos exógenos a la figura del joven interesantes de incorporar en el análisis sobre jóvenes e inserción laboral.

España rapsodie

Soitinnus: Ork.

”Ketkä tässä oikein hulluja ovat?” Hullun lehmän tauti Helsingin Sanomissa vuosina 1996−2004

Työni aiheena on hullun lehmän tauti eli BSE (bovine spongiform encephalopathy). Tutkin, millaisen kuvan Helsingin Sanomat antoi tästä taudista vuosina 1996−2004 kysymällä mitä tunteita se herätti, mihin muihin tauteihin lehti sitä vertasi ja miten se uutisoi lääkäreiden ja eläinlääkäreiden antamia hullun lehmän tautia koskevia haastatteluja. Tutkin hullun lehmän tautia yhteiskunnallisesti ja kulttuurisesti, osana lääketieteen historiaa. Johtoajatuksenani on, että sairaudet eivät ole pelkästään lääketieteellisiä ilmiöitä, vaan kulttuuriset merkitykset määrittävät niitä voimakkaasti. Helsingin Sanomien hullun lehmän taudista kertovien juttujen yhteydessä olevia kuvia analysoin intertekstuaalisuuden käsitteen kautta, jonka mukaan kuvien merkitys syntyy aina suhteessa muihin kuviin ja myös sanallisiin kirjoituksiin. Hullun lehmän taudin herättämistä tunteista voimakkaimpana ilmeni pelko. Sairastumisen ja kuoleman pelon teemoja Helsingin Sanomat ei kuitenkaan kunnolla käsitellyt kirjoituksissaan, vaan tunteista saattoi saada vain viitteitä juttujen yhteydessä olevien kuvien kautta. Näitä kuvia tutkin vertaamalla niitä taidehistoriasta tuttuihin teoksiin ja niiden mukanaan kantamiin merkityksiin. Löysinkin lehtikuvien ja klassikkoteosten kuvakielen väliltä yllättäviä yhtymäkohtia. Helsingin Sanomat toi esille ajatukset tehomaataloudesta, ihmisen ahneudesta ja kotieläinten huonosta kohtelusta BSE:n syinä. Lehti piti hullun lehmän tautia suorastaan tehotuotannon, globalisaation ja ahneuden vertauskuvana. Näiden ajatusten myötä keskusteluun nousivat luonnonmukainen maataloustuotanto ja kasvissyönti. Taudit, jotka lehti useimmiten mainitsi BSE:n yhteydessä, olivat suu- ja sorkkatauti, rutto sekä aids, koska näihin tauteihin liitetyillä merkityksillä pystyi selittämään myös tätä uutta ja hämmentävää tautia. Lääkärit pitivät hullun lehmän taudista noussutta kohua liioiteltuna, eikä heidän haastatteluistaan saanut kovin näyttäviä lehtijuttuja. Sen sijaan taudin torjunnasta vastanneet eläinlääkärit olivat hyvin näkyvästi esillä niin taudin vastustajina kuin siitä tiedottajina. Eläinlääkärit joutuivat myös Helsingin Sanomien arvostelun kohteeksi vastustaessaan tautia lehden mielestä liian ponnettomasti. Osoitan tutkimuksessani yhtä tautia tarkastelemalla, miten moninaisilla tavoilla, mielleyhtymillä ja toiminnoilla sairauksien kulttuuriset merkitykset rakentuvat.

Reparar y sustituir cosas en la compraventa : evolución y últimas tendencias

International texts recognise the buyer's right to the repair or replacement if the goods do not conform with the contract, and at the same time, establish exceptions to their application and certain rules of protection for the seller (Art. 46 CISG, Art. 7.2.3 UNIDROIT Principles of International Commercial Contracts, Art.9:102 PECL and Arts. 4:202 y 4:204 (1) PEL S). This approach is a result of a compromise between civil law systems and the common law and it has been widely extended to the regulation of consumer sales over the last decade (Art. 3.3 of the Directive 1999/44/CE, Art. III.-3:302 DCFR, Art. 26 of the proposal for a Directive on Consumer Rights). These norms regulate the different ways of requiring the fulfilment of a contractual obligation from a new paradigm which has little to do with a need to protect the weak consumer which governed the origins of consumer policy in the European Community. Now the idea of the consumer who shall behave economically efficiently prevails in Art. 3.3 of the Directive 1999/44/CE, a norm which is clearly influenced by the international texts and whose transposing into the national legislation of Member States has created important problems for traditional dogmas. In this sense there are still some unclear issues, such as the possibility of replacing in sales of goods of specific nature or second-hand goods, some aspects on the exercise of repair and replacement, and, even, their use as primary remedies rather than a reduction in price or a rescission of the contract. With regard to this, in England the possibility of offering the consumer free choice between these measures if the goods do not conform with the contract has been raised. This is far from the principle of pacta sunt servanda and is clearly contrary to the economic approach of the proposal for a Directive on Consumer Rights. Up to now Spain has limited itself to implementing Art. 3.3 Directive 1999/44/CE into its legal system in almost literal terms and the case law on the issue has completely turned out to be insufficient. By contrast with Germany, the Spanish legislator has not extended the application of the rules of repair and replacement of Directive 1999/44/CE to nonconsumer sales, even though two draft bill proposals along these lines presented by the General Commission for Codifying (“Comisión General de Codificación”), the last one being in January, 2009

Aspectos toxicológicos e químicos da Anatoxina-a e seus análogos

Anatoxin-a and its analogues are azabicyclic alkaloids that represent one of the most powerful nicotinic agonists known for the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR). Because of this potent mechanism of action, anatoxin-a and its derivatives represent a target for the discovery of novel drugs. Their syntheses are useful for environmental monitoring and also for pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic and toxicological studies. Some strategies for the synthesis of anatoxin-a and analogous compounds are described herein, covering the period from 1996 to the present date. In this review, emphasis is given to the chemical and toxicological aspects of some variants of anatoxin-a, including homoanatoxin-a and anatoxin-a(s).

Fracasó el sistema ferroviario en España? Reflexiones en torno a la paradoja del ferrocarril español

En este artículo se intenta ofrecer una solución a la llamada «paradoja del ferrocarril español», es decir, al aparente conflicto existente entre el elevado ahorro social del sistema ferroviario español, por un lado, y, por otro, la escasa utilización de la red y los paupérrimos rendimientos de las compañías concesionarias (achacados tradicionalmente a un exceso de inversión en el sistema). En el artículo se analiza la información disponible referente a esos aspectos y se llega a la conclusión de que, a partir de la base empírica existente, no puede hablarse de exceso de inversión ni de fracaso económico en lo que respecta al sistema ferroviario español. Sí, en cambio, podría hablarse de fracaso en lo que respecta a la intervención estatal, aunque este tema queda pendiente de investigaciones futuras.

Cloração do anisol, tolueno e nitrobenzeno com ácido tricloroisocianúrico (ATCI): aspectos computacionais sobre a reatividade e regiosseletividade

We present in this educational article a theoretical analysis based on DFT/B3LYP 6-311++G (d,p) and ab initio MP2/6-311++G(d,p) computational calculation about the reactivity and the regioselectivity on the chlorination reaction of anisole, toluene and nitrobenzene, using trichloroisocyanuric acid (TICA) as donor of Cl+. The H.O.M.O. / L.U.M.O. energy and N.B.O. atomic charges of various aromatic systems were calculated in ab initio level. The energies of the reagents and intermediaries were calculated using D.F.T.. These results have been presented as a quantitative example for the S E A mechanism, in the undergraduate organic chemistry disciplines.

Reações de organocatálise com aminas quirais: aspectos mecanísticos e aplicações em síntese orgânica

The philosophy of organocatalysis is based on the utilization of organic compounds to catalyze organic transformations without the intervention of metals. This area has attracted much attention of the synthetic chemistry community on the last years, which can be confirmed by the explosion of published papers dealing with this subject. Phosphorus compounds, urea and thiourea derivatives, alkaloids, guanidine derivatives, for example, have already been used as organocatalysts. In this review we have focused on the use of chiral amines as organocatalyst. We have also chosen some outstanding examples to demonstrate the potentiality of this strategy in the synthesis of natural products and biologically active compounds.

Óleos essenciais no Brasil: aspectos gerais, desenvolvimento e perspectivas

Essential oils are extracted by steam distillation of plants or cold pressing of citrus fruit pericarp. They are used in food, cosmetic, personal care and pharmaceutical industries. In Brazil, oils from orange and related products contribute to near 97% to the positive commercial performance of the sector. Predatory exploitation and the availability of new sources of raw materials, with more attracting prices, changed the paradigm. Prospective studies, sustainable use of Brazilian biodiversity, domestication of exotic species with commercial relevance, the use of breeding techniques and the development of new applications for essential oils are thematic lines, usually multidisciplinary, which have been prompting the expansion of the research on essential oils. This paper presents an analysis on essential oils balance trade from 2005 to 2008 and some historical data on research and production of essential oils in Brazil.

Aspectos mecanísticos da bioatividade e toxicidade de nitrocompostos

Nitrocompounds are bioactive molecules used as antibacterial, antiparasitic and antitumoral agents. In the past of years, these molecules have been broadly studied in several fields, such as medicinal chemistry, organic chemistry, biochemical, toxicology and electrochemistry. The nitrocompounds mode of action involves the biotransformation of the nitro group, releasing intermediates in the redox process. Some of those intermediates attack enzymes, membranes and DNA, providing the basis for their biological activity and adverse effects. In this report, some aspects regarding the biological activity, mechanism of action and toxicity of nitrocompounds are explored, purposing the research of new bioactive derivatives having low toxicity.

Cromatografia de afinidade por íons metálicos imobilizados (IMAC) de biomoléculas: aspectos fundamentais e aplicações tecnológicas

Immobilized Metal Ion Affinity Cromatography - IMAC - is a group-specific based adsorption applied to the purification and structure-function studies of proteins and nucleic acids. The adsorption is based on coordination between a metal ion chelated on the surface of a solid matrix and electron donor groups at the surface of the biomolecule. IMAC is a highly selective, low cost, and easily scaled-up technique being used in research and commercial operations. A separation process can be designed for a specific molecule by just selecting an appropriate metal ion, chelating agent, and operational conditions such as pH, ionic strength, and buffer type.

Adsorción física sobre sólidos: aspectos termodinámicos

A thermodynamic formalism based on the Gibbs Dividing Surface (GDS) for the description of a solid-fluid interface is presented, so that the adsorption layer is understand as a phase and the adsorption process as the transference of components between a 3-dimensional phase and a 2-dimensional one. Using a state equation derived from the Henry's Law, we shall show how the Langmuir isotherm is deduced from de Gibbs isotherm. The GDS is useful also for understanding the release of heat by a system as the adsorption occurs.

Nanotecnologia: aspectos gerais e potencial de aplicação em catálise

In recent years nanomaterials, such as metallic nanoparticles, nanowires, nanotapes, nanotubes and nanocomposites, have attracted increasing interest for several technological applications. In catalysis, the great potential of nanomaterials is related to the high catalytic activity exhibited by these materials as a function of the high surface/volume ratio when the particles acquire diameter below 5 nm. In this work, a review about concepts and background of nanoscience and nanotechnology is presented with emphasis in catalysis. Special attention is given to gold nanoparticles and carbon nanotubes, focusing the properties and characteristics of these materials in several catalytic reactions.