Studies in biogas technology. Part II. Optimisation of plant dimensions

In this paper, the design basis of the conventional Khadi and Village Industries Commission biogas plants has been elucidated. It has been shown that minimisation of the cost of the gas holder alone leads to the narrow and deep digesters of conventional plants. If instead, the total capital cost of the gas holder plus digester is minimised, the optimisation leads to wide and shallow digesters, which are less expensive. To test this alternative, two prototype plants have been designed, constructed and operated. These plants are not only 25–40% cheaper, but their performance is actually slightly better than the conventional plants.

Studies in biogas technology. Part I. Performance of a conventional biogas plant

This paper gives an account of a conventional 5.66 m3/day (200 cubic ft/day) biogas plant which has been instrumented, operated and monitored for 2 1/2 years. The observations regarding input to the plant, sludge and biogas outputs, and conditions inside the digester, have been described. Three salient features stand out. First, the observed average daily gas yield is much less than the rated capacity of the plant. Secondly, the plants show ease of operation and a very slow response to reductions and cessations of dung supply. Thirdly, the unexpectedly marked uniformity of density and temperature inside the digester indicates the almost complete absence of the stratification which is widely believed to take place; hence, biogas plants may be treated as isothermal, ‘ uniform ’ density, most probably imperfectly mixed, fed-batch reactors operating at the mean ambient temperature and the density of water.

One pot synthesis of polycyclic oxygen aromatics. Part III mechanism of formation

Reaction of 6-Image -butyl-1-bromomethyl-2-(2-tetrahydropyranyloxy)-naphthalene2c with tetrachlorocatechol (TCC) in acetone in presence of K2CO3 gave diastereomers 6c and 7c. A mechanism (Scheme-1) invoking the base induced cleavage of the pyranyl ether 2 to 1,2-naphthoquinone-1-methide 8 as the first step has been postulated. The cleavage of the pyranyl ether linkage in 2 to give dimers 4 and 5 of 1,2-naphthoquinone-1-methide has been demonstrated with different bases. 1,2-Naphthoquinone-1-methide 8, thus generated, undergoes Michael addition with TCC followed by elimination of chloride ions to give a diketone, which further undergoes aldolisation with acetone to give diastereomers 6 and 7. Michael reaction of 8, generated Image from pyranyl ethers 2a-c, with tetrabromocatechol (TBC) under similar-reaction conditions gave the expected monobromo compounds 6h, 6i, 6k, 7n, 7n and 7q. The last step in the proposed mechanism, Image ., aldolisation has also been demonstrated using different ketonic solvents. Thus, reaction of 2a-c with TCC/TBC in diethyl ketone/methyl ethyl ketone under similar reaction conditions gave the expected compounds 6 and 7.

Bridging East and West : The Establishment of the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA) in the United States Foreign Policy of Bridge Building, 1964-1972.

The dissertation examines the foreign policies of the United States through the prism of science and technology. In the focal point of scrutiny is the policy establishing the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA) and the development of the multilateral part of bridge building in American foreign policy during the 1960s and early 1970s. After a long and arduous negotiation process, the institute was finally established by twelve national member organizations from the following countries: Bulgaria, Canada, Czechoslovakia, Federal Republic of Germany (FRG), France, German Democratic Republic (GDR), Great Britain, Italy, Japan, Poland, Soviet Union and United States; a few years later Sweden, Finland and the Netherlands also joined. It is said that the goal of the institute was to bring together researchers from East and West to solve pertinent problems caused by the modernization process experienced in industrialized world. It originates from President Lyndon B. Johnson s bridge building policies that were launched in 1964, and was set in a well-contested and crowded domain of other international organizations of environmental and social planning. Since the distinct need for yet another organization was not evident, the process of negotiations in this multinational environment enlightens the foreign policy ambitions of the United States on the road to the Cold War détente. The study places this project within its political era, and juxtaposes it with other international organizations, especially that of the OECD, ECE and NATO. Conventionally, Lyndon Johnson s bridge building policies have been seen as a means to normalize its international relations bilaterally with different East European countries, and the multilateral dimension of the policy has been ignored. This is why IIASA s establishment process in this multilateral environment brings forth new information on US foreign policy goals, the means to achieve these goals, as well as its relations to other advanced industrialized societies before the time of détente, during the 1960s and early 1970s. Furthermore, the substance of the institute applied systems analysis illuminates the differences between European and American methodological thinking in social planning. Systems analysis is closely associated with (American) science and technology policies of the 1960s, especially in its military administrative applications, thus analysis within the foreign policy environment of the United States proved particularly fruitful. In the 1960s the institutional structures of European continent with faltering, and the growing tendencies of integration were in flux. One example of this was the long, drawn-out process of British membership in the EEC, another is de Gaulle s withdrawal from NATO s military-political cooperation. On the other hand, however, economic cooperation in Europe between East and West, and especially with the Soviet Union was expanding rapidly. This American initiative to form a new institutional actor has to be seen in that structural context, showing that bridge building was needed not only to the East, but also to the West. The narrative amounts to an analysis of how the United States managed both cooperation and conflict in its hegemonic aspirations in the emerging modern world, and how it used its special relationship with the United Kingdom to achieve its goals. The research is based on the archives of the United States, Great Britain, Sweden, Finland, and IIASA. The primary sources have been complemented with both contemporary and present day research literature, periodicals, and interviews.

Studies of phosphazenes. Part 33. Thermal rearrangement of alkoxy(p-methylphenoxy)cyclophosphazenes: a synthetic route to oxocyclophosphazanes, phosphazadienes and phosphaz-1-enes

The aryloxy(alkoxy)cyclotriphosphazenes N3P3(OR)6�m(OC6H4Me-p)n(R = Me, n= 1�3; R = Et or CH2Ph, n= 3) rearrange on heating to give trioxocyclotriphosphazanes; the di- and mono-methoxy derivatives, N3P3(OMe)6�n(OC6H4Me-p)n(n= 4 or 5), yield dioxophosphaz-1-enes and an oxophosphazadiene respectively. The 1H, 13C and 31P NMR data for the starting materials and the products are presented. No evidence has been found for partially rearranged products. The geometrical disposition of the aryloxy groups in the starting material is retained in the rearranged products. Some aspects of the mechanism of the thermal rearrangement are discussed.

Preparation and characterization of hydrazine derivatives. Part-II: Reaction of transition metal ammonium double sulphates with hydrazine hydrate

Transition metal ammonium double sulphates (NH4)2M(SO4)2· 6H2O, where M = Fe, Co and Ni react with hydrazine hydrate in air giving crystalline compounds of the general formula (N2H5) [M(N2H3COO)3] H2O. The reaction proceeds through (N2H5)2 M(SO4)2, · 3N2H4, (N2H5)2 [M(OH)4 · (N2H4)2], M(N2H3COO)2 · (N2H4)2 and N2H5 [M(N2 H3 COO)3] intermediates. The reaction sequence is followed by chemical analysis and infrared spectra. A possible reaction mechanism has been suggested.

Seasonal fluctuations in blue-green algae, especially in heterocystous species in polluted coastal waters off Helsinki city, in the northern part of the Gulf of Finland

Tiivistelmä

Stereochemical studies on cyclic peptides. Part XI. Conformation of cyclic pentapeptides having intramolecular 3 leads to 1 hydrogen bonds.

Conformational analysis of cyclic pentapeptides having two intra-ring 3 leads to 1 hydrogen bonds has been carried out. It is found that the structure can easily be formed with trans planar peptide units without causing significant angular strain at the alpha-carbon atoms. Four different types of conformations designated Types I--IV are possible for the backbone structure. Details of these four types of conformations and also the accommodating possibility of these types for allglycyl and all-alanyl residues are presented. Three of the four types have relatively low energies for glycyl residues whereas the other one has a slightly higher energy. When alanyl residues are introduced at the five alpha-carbon atoms, the types that are energetically favourable depend upon the sequence of isomers. Energy calculations have also been carried out for the combinations of glycyl, L- and D-alanyl residues. The theoretical results are compared with available experimental observations both from solution and solid state studies.

Padé approach to potential transients: Part 1. Electron transfer without and with coupling to first-order homogeneous reactions at planar electrodes

Potential transients are obtained by using “Padé approximants” (an accurate approximation procedure valid globally — not just perturbatively) for all amplitudes of concentration polarization and current densities. This is done for several mechanistic schemes under constant current conditions. We invert the non-linear current-potential relationship in the form (using the Lagrange or the Ramanujan method) of power series appropriate to the two extremes, namely near reversible and near irreversible. Transforming both into the Pad́e expressions, we construct the potential-time profile by retaining whichever is the more accurate of the two. The effectiveness of this method is demonstrated through illustrations which include couplings of homogeneous chemical reactions to the electron-transfer step.

The German Military Entrepreneur Ernst von Mansfeld and His Conduct of Asymmetrical Warfare in the Thirty Years War

The dissertation examines aspects of asymmetrical warfare in the war-making of the German military entrepreneur Ernst von Mansfeld during his involvement in the Thirty Years War. Due to the nature of the inquiry, which combines history with military-political theory, the methodological approach of the dissertation is interdisciplinary. The theoretical framework used is that of asymmetrical warfare. The primary sources used in the dissertation are mostly political pamphlets and newsletters. Other sources include letters, documents, and contemporaneous chronicles. The secondary sources are divided into two categories, literature on the history of the Thirty Years War and textbooks covering the theory of asymmetrical warfare. The first category includes biographical works on Ernst von Mansfeld, as well as general histories of the Thirty Years War and seventeenth-century warfare. The second category combines military theory and political science. The structure of the dissertation consists of eight lead chapters, including an introduction and conclusion. The introduction covers the theoretical approach and aims of the dissertation, and provides a brief overlook of the sources and previous research on Ernst von Mansfeld and asymmetrical warfare in the Thirty Years War. The second chapter covers aspects of Mansfeld s asymmetrical warfare from the perspective of operational art. The third chapter investigates the illegal and immoral aspects of Mansfeld s war-making. The fourth chapter compares the differing methods by which Mansfeld and his enemies raised and financed their armies. The fifth chapter investigates Mansfeld s involvement in indirect warfare. The sixth chapter presents Mansfeld as an object and an agent of image and information war. The seventh chapter looks into the counter-reactions, which Mansfeld s asymmetrical warfare provoked from his enemies. The eighth chapter offers a conclusion of the findings. The dissertation argues that asymmetrical warfare presented itself in all the aforementioned areas of Mansfeld s conduct during the Thirty Years War. The operational asymmetry arose from the freedom of movement that Mansfeld enjoyed, while his enemies were constrained by the limits of positional warfare. As a non-state operator Mansfeld was also free to flout the rules of seventeenth-century warfare, which his enemies could not do with equal ease. The raising and financing of military forces was another source of asymmetry, because the nature of early seventeenth-century warfare favoured private military entrepreneurs rather than embryonic fiscal-military states. The dissertation also argues that other powers fought their own asymmetrical and indirect wars against the Habsburgs through Mansfeld s agency. Image and information were asymmetrical weapons, which were both aimed against Mansfeld and utilized by him. Finally, Mansfeld s asymmetrical threat forced the Habsburgs to adapt to his methods, which ultimately lead to the formation of a subcontracted Imperial Army under the management and leadership of Albrecht von Wallenstein. Therefore Mansfeld s asymmetrical warfare ultimately paved way for the kind of state-monopolized, organised, and symmetrical warfare that has prevailed from 1648 onwards. The conclusion is that Mansfeld s conduct in the Thirty Years War matched the criteria for asymmetrical warfare. While traditional historiography treated Mansfeld as an anomaly in the age of European state formation, his asymmetrical warfare has begun to bear resemblance to the contemporary conflicts, where nation states no longer hold the monopoly of violence.

Underemployment and part-time work in the Nordic countries

84 s.

One pot synthesis of polycyclic oxygen aromatics. Part IV reaction of THP ether of 2-bromomethyl phenols

Reaction of 2-bromomethyl-1-(2′-tetrahydropyranyloxy) benzene 3a with tetrachlorocatechol(TCC) in acetone in presence of anhydrous K2CO3 resulted in the formation of diastereomeric products to which cis- & trans- 6-chloro-8-hydroxy-8-(2-oxopropyl)spiro[9H-benzo[a]xanthen- 9,2′(1′H) benzofuran]-7(8H)-one (7a & 8a) structures were assigned, along with tetrachlorocatechol ethers (5a & 6a). Similar reaction of 3a with tetrabromocatechol(TBC) gave the expected monobromo compounds 7d & 8d along with the ethers 5d & 6d. When the reaction was repeated with substrates 3b–c with TCC/TBC in ketonic solvents(acetone/methyl ethyl ketone), the corresponding compounds 5b–c to 8b–c, 5e–f to 6e–f, 7e–g & 8e–h were obtained. A suitable explanation has been given for the formation of acetonyl compound 6 in this reaction.

Organometallic chemistry of diphosphazanes. Part 7. Platinum(II), palladium-(o), -(I) and -(II) complexes of RN[P(OPh)2]2(R = Me or Ph)

The reactions of [MCl2(cod)](M = Pd or Pt, cod = cycloocta-1,5-diene) with RN[P(OPh)2]2[R = Me (L1) or Ph (L2)] afford the chelate complexes [MCl2L1] and [MCl2L2]. The dinuclear palladium(O) complex, [Pd2L13] has been synthesized by starting from [Pd2(dba)3](dba = dibenzylideneacetone). Redox condensation of [Pd2(dba)3] and [PdCl2(PhCN)2] in the presence of the diphosphazane ligands gives the dinuclear palladium(I) complexes [Pd2Cl2L12] and [Pd2Cl2L22]. The structures of the complexes have been deduced from 1H and 31P NMR spectroscopic data. Single-crystal X-ray diffraction studies confirm the structures of [Pd2L13] and [Pd2Cl2L22].

Processing maps for hot working of Cu-Ni-Zn alloys. Part I - Alpha-nickel silver

The constitutive behaviour of agr — nickel silver in the temperature range 700–950 °C and strain rate range 0.001–100 s–1 was characterized with the help of a processing map generated on the basis of the principles of the ldquodynamic materials modelrdquo of Prasadet al Using the flow stress data, processing maps showing the variation of the efficiency of power dissipation (given by 2m/(m+1) wherem is the strain-rate sensitivity) with temperature and strain rate were obtained, agr-nickel silver exhibits a single domain at temperatures greater than 750 °C and at strain rates lower than 1s–1, with a maximum efficiency of 38% occurring at about 950 °C and at a strain rate of 0.1 s–1. In the domain the material undergoes dynamic recrystallization (DRX). On the basis of a model, it is shown that the DRX is controlled by the rate of interface formation (nucleation) which depends on the diffusion-controlled process of thermal recovery by climb. At high strain rates (10 and 100s–1) the material undergoes microstructural instabilities, the manifestations of which are in the form of adiabatic shear bands and strain markings.