SolarPaces 2013: Innovations on direct steam generation in linear fresnel collectors

Direct Steam Generation (DSG) in Linear Fresnel (LF) solar collectors is being consolidated as a feasible technology for Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) plants. The competitiveness of this technology relies on the following main features: water as heat transfer fluid (HTF) in Solar Field (SF), obtaining high superheated steam temperatures and pressures at turbine inlet (500ºC and 90 bar), no heat tracing required to avoid HTF freezing, no HTF degradation, no environmental impacts, any heat exchanger between SF and Balance Of Plant (BOP), and low cost installation and maintenance. Regarding to LF solar collectors, were recently developed as an alternative to Parabolic Trough Collector (PTC) technology. The main advantages of LF are: the reduced collector manufacturing cost and maintenance, linear mirrors shapes versus parabolic mirror, fixed receiver pipes (no ball joints reducing leaking for high pressures), lower susceptibility to wind damages, and light supporting structures allowing reduced driving devices. Companies as Novatec, Areva, Solar Euromed, etc., are investing in LF DSG technology and constructing different pilot plants to demonstrate the benefits and feasibility of this solution for defined locations and conditions (Puerto Errado 1 and 2 in Murcia Spain, Lidellin Newcastle Australia, Kogran Creek in South West Queensland Australia, Kimberlina in Bakersfield California USA, Llo Solar in Pyrénées France,Dhursar in India,etc). There are several critical decisions that must be taken in order to obtain a compromise and optimization between plant performance, cost, and durability. Some of these decisions go through the SF design: proper thermodynamic operational parameters, receiver material selection for high pressures, phase separators and recirculation pumps number and location, pipes distribution to reduce the amount of tubes (reducing possible leaks points and transient time, etc.), etc. Attending to these aspects, the correct design parameters selection and its correct assessment are the main target for designing DSG LF power plants. For this purpose in the recent few years some commercial software tools were developed to simulatesolar thermal power plants, the most focused on LF DSG design are Thermoflex and System Advisor Model (SAM). Once the simulation tool is selected,it is made the study of the proposed SFconfiguration that constitutes the main innovation of this work, and also a comparison with one of the most typical state-of-the-art configuration. The transient analysis must be simulated with high detail level, mainly in the BOP during start up, shut down, stand by, and partial loads are crucial, to obtain the annual plant performance. An innovative SF configurationwas proposed and analyzed to improve plant performance. Finally it was demonstrated thermal inertia and BOP regulation mode are critical points in low sun irradiation day plant behavior, impacting in annual performance depending on power plant location.

MIA - a free and open source software for gray scale medical image analysis

Background Gray scale images make the bulk of data in bio-medical image analysis, and hence, the main focus of many image processing tasks lies in the processing of these monochrome images. With ever improving acquisition devices, spatial and temporal image resolution increases, and data sets become very large. Various image processing frameworks exists that make the development of new algorithms easy by using high level programming languages or visual programming. These frameworks are also accessable to researchers that have no background or little in software development because they take care of otherwise complex tasks. Specifically, the management of working memory is taken care of automatically, usually at the price of requiring more it. As a result, processing large data sets with these tools becomes increasingly difficult on work station class computers. One alternative to using these high level processing tools is the development of new algorithms in a languages like C++, that gives the developer full control over how memory is handled, but the resulting workflow for the prototyping of new algorithms is rather time intensive, and also not appropriate for a researcher with little or no knowledge in software development. Another alternative is in using command line tools that run image processing tasks, use the hard disk to store intermediate results, and provide automation by using shell scripts. Although not as convenient as, e.g. visual programming, this approach is still accessable to researchers without a background in computer science. However, only few tools exist that provide this kind of processing interface, they are usually quite task specific, and don’t provide an clear approach when one wants to shape a new command line tool from a prototype shell script. Results The proposed framework, MIA, provides a combination of command line tools, plug-ins, and libraries that make it possible to run image processing tasks interactively in a command shell and to prototype by using the according shell scripting language. Since the hard disk becomes the temporal storage memory management is usually a non-issue in the prototyping phase. By using string-based descriptions for filters, optimizers, and the likes, the transition from shell scripts to full fledged programs implemented in C++ is also made easy. In addition, its design based on atomic plug-ins and single tasks command line tools makes it easy to extend MIA, usually without the requirement to touch or recompile existing code. Conclusion In this article, we describe the general design of MIA, a general purpouse framework for gray scale image processing. We demonstrated the applicability of the software with example applications from three different research scenarios, namely motion compensation in myocardial perfusion imaging, the processing of high resolution image data that arises in virtual anthropology, and retrospective analysis of treatment outcome in orthognathic surgery. With MIA prototyping algorithms by using shell scripts that combine small, single-task command line tools is a viable alternative to the use of high level languages, an approach that is especially useful when large data sets need to be processed.

Raman spectroscopy in Group IV nanowires and nanowire axial heterostructures

The control of the SiGe NW composition is fundamental for the fabrication of high quality heterostructures. Raman spectroscopy has been used to analyse the composition of SiGe alloys. We present a study of the Raman spectrum of SiGe nanowires and SiGe/Si heterostructures. The inhomogeneity of the Ge composition deduced from the Raman spectrum is explained by the existence of a Ge-rich outer shell and by the interaction of the NW with the electromagnetic field associated with the laser beam.

A novel scanning lens instrument for evaluating Fresnel lens performance: equipment development and initial results

A system dedicated to the optical transmittance characterization of Fresnel lenses has been developed at NREL, in collaboration with the UPM. The system quantifies the optical efficiency of the lens by generating a performance map. The shape of the focused spot may also be analyzed to understand change in the lens performance. The primary instrument components (lasers and CCD detector) have been characterized to confirm their capability for performing optical transmittance measurements. Measurements performed on SoG and PMMA lenses subject to a variety of indoor conditions (e.g., UV and damp heat) identified differences in the optical efficiency of the evaluated lenses, demonstrating the ability of the Scanning Lens Instrument (SLI) to distinguish between the aged lenses.

Supercritical Steam power cycle for Line-Focus Solar Power Plants

The supercritical Rankine power cycle offers a net improvement in plant efficiency compared with a subcritical Rankine cycle. For fossil power plants the minimum supercritical steam turbine size is about 450MW. A recent study between Sandia National Laboratories and Siemens Energy, Inc., published on March 2013, confirmed the feasibility of adapting the Siemens turbine SST-900 for supercritical steam in concentrated solar power plants, with a live steam conditions 230-260 bar and output range between 140-200 MWe. In this context, this analysis is focused on integrating a line-focus solar field with a supercritical Rankine power cycle. For this purpose two heat transfer fluids were assessed: direct steam generation and molten salt Hitec XL. To isolate solar field from high pressure supercritical water power cycle, an intermediate heat exchanger was installed between linear solar collectors and balance of plant. Due to receiver selective coating temperature limitations, turbine inlet temperature was fixed 550ºC. The design-point conditions were 550ºC and 260 bar at turbine inlet, and 165 MWe Gross power output. Plant performance was assessed at design-point in the supercritical power plant (between 43-45% net plant efficiency depending on balance of plantconfiguration), and in the subcritical plant configuration (~40% net plant efficiency). Regarding the balance of plant configuration, direct reheating was adopted as the optimum solution to avoid any intermediate heat exchanger. One direct reheating stage between high pressure turbine and intermediate pressure turbine is the common practice; however, General Electric ultrasupercritical(350 bar) fossil power plants also considered doubled-reheat applications. In this study were analyzed heat balances with single-reheat, double-reheat and even three reheating stages. In all cases were adopted the proper reheating solar field configurations to limit solar collectors pressure drops. As main conclusion, it was confirmed net plant efficiency improvements in supercritical Rankine line-focus (parabolic or linear Fresnel) solar plant configurations are mainly due to the following two reasons: higher number of feed-water preheaters (up to seven)delivering hotter water at solar field inlet, and two or even three direct reheating stages (550ºC reheating temperature) in high or intermediate pressure turbines. However, the turbine manufacturer should confirm the equipment constrains regarding reheating stages and number of steam extractions to feed-water heaters.

Book Review: Elastic Beams and Frames, by J. D. Renton

The book represents a very interesting example of the possibility to combine in a single publication basic theory of structures and quite advanced topics on the same subject. The author fulfills this objective in a reasonable size book, less than 400 pages divided into 15 chapters averaging 20 pages each plus 9 short appendices. A diskette is also included in the book. This diskette contains training as well practical executable programs on different aspects of structural analysis, such as cross-sections properties,general-purpose computer programs for the static, dynamic and stability analysis of simple bar structures, etc. The book figures are didactic and have been carefully drawn.

Numerical methods in Nonlinear Analysis of shell structures

The design of shell and spatial structures represents an important challenge even with the use of the modern computer technology.If we concentrate in the concrete shell structures many problems must be faced,such as the conceptual and structural disposition, optimal shape design, analysis, construction methods, details etc. and all these problems are interconnected among them. As an example the shape optimization requires the use of several disciplines like structural analysis, sensitivity analysis, optimization strategies and geometrical design concepts. Similar comments can be applied to other space structures such as steel trusses with single or double shape and tension structures. In relation to the analysis the Finite Element Method appears to be the most extended and versatile technique used in the practice. In the application of this method several issues arise. First the derivation of the pertinent shell theory or alternatively the degenerated 3-D solid approach should be chosen. According to the previous election the suitable FE model has to be adopted i.e. the displacement,stress or mixed formulated element. The good behavior of the shell structures under dead loads that are carried out towards the supports by mainly compressive stresses is impaired by the high imperfection sensitivity usually exhibited by these structures. This last effect is important particularly if large deformation and material nonlinearities of the shell may interact unfavorably, as can be the case for thin reinforced shells. In this respect the study of the stability of the shell represents a compulsory step in the analysis. Therefore there are currently very active fields of research such as the different descriptions of consistent nonlinear shell models given by Simo, Fox and Rifai, Mantzenmiller and Buchter and Ramm among others, the consistent formulation of efficient tangent stiffness as the one presented by Ortiz and Schweizerhof and Wringgers, with application to concrete shells exhibiting creep behavior given by Scordelis and coworkers; and finally the development of numerical techniques needed to trace the nonlinear response of the structure. The objective of this paper is concentrated in the last research aspect i.e. in the presentation of a state-of-the-art on the existing solution techniques for nonlinear analysis of structures. In this presentation the following excellent reviews on this subject will be mainly used.

Evaluación de un sistema de energía solar térmica basado en colectores de tubos de vacío para suministro de agua a alta temperatura

Esta tesis pretende contribuir al fomento y utilización de la energía solar como alternativa para la producción de agua caliente en el sector agroindustrial. La demanda de agua caliente es un aspecto clave en un gran número de agroindustrias y explotaciones agrarias. Esta demanda presenta una gran variabilidad, tanto en los horarios en que se solicita como en la temperatura del agua del depósito requerida (TADr), difiriendo del perfil de demanda habitual para uso doméstico. Existe una necesidad de profundizar en la influencia que tiene la variación de la TADr en la eficiencia y viabilidad de estos sistemas. El objetivo principal de esta tesis es caracterizar el funcionamiento de un sistema solar térmico (SST) con captador de tubos de vacío (CTV) para producir agua a temperaturas superiores a las habituales en estos sistemas. Se pretende determinar la influencia que la TADr tiene sobre la eficiencia energética del sistema, cuantificar el volumen de agua caliente que es capaz de suministrar en función de la TADr y determinar la rentabilidad del SST como sistema complementario de suministro. Para ello, se ha diseñado, instalado y puesto a punto un sistema experimental de calentamiento de agua, monitorizando su funcionamiento a diferentes TADr bajo condiciones ambientales reales. Los resultados cuantifican cómo el aumento de la TADr provoca una disminución de la energía suministrada al depósito, pudiendo superar diferencias de 1000 Wh m-2 d-1 entre 40 ºC y 80 ºC, para valores de irradiación solar próximos a 8000 Wh m-2 d-1 (la eficiencia del sistema oscila entre 73% y 56%). Esta reducción es consecuencia de la disminución de la eficiencia del captador y del aumento de las pérdidas de calor en las tuberías del circuito. En cuanto al agua suministrada, cuanto mayor es la TADr, mayor es la irradiación solar requerida para que tenga lugar la primera descarga de agua, aumentando el tiempo entre descargas y disminuyendo el número de éstas a lo largo del día. A medida que se incrementa la TADr, se produce una reducción del volumen de agua suministrado a la TADr, por factores como la pérdida de eficiencia del captador, las pérdidas en las tuberías, la energía acumulada en el agua que no alcanza la TADr y la mayor energía extraída del sistema en el agua producida. Para una TADr de 80 ºC, una parte importante de la energía permanece acumulada en el depósito sin alcanzar la TADr al final del día. Para aprovechar esta energía sería necesario disponer de un sistema complementario de suministro, ya que las pérdidas de calor nocturnas en el depósito pueden reducir considerablemente la energía útil disponible al día siguiente. La utilización del sistema solar como sistema único de suministro es inviable en la mayoría de los casos, especialmente a TADr elevadas, al no ajustarse la demanda de agua caliente a la estacionalidad de la producción del sistema solar, y al existir muchos días sin producción de agua caliente por la ausencia de irradiación mínima. Por el contrario, la inversión del sistema solar como sistema complementario para suministrar parte de la demanda térmica de una instalación es altamente recomendable. La energía útil anual del sistema solar estimada oscila entre 1322 kWh m-2 y 1084 kWh m-2. La mayor rentabilidad se obtendría suponiendo la existencia de una caldera eléctrica, donde la inversión se recuperaría en pocos años -entre 5.7 años a 40 ºC y 7.2 años a 80 ºC -. La rentabilidad también es elevada suponiendo la existencia de una caldera de gasóleo, con periodos de recuperación inferiores a 10 años. En una industria ficticia con demanda de 100 kWh d-1 y caldera de gasóleo existente, la inversión en una instalación solar optimizada sería rentable a cualquier TADr, con valores de VAN cercanos a la inversión realizada -12000 € a 80 ºC y 15000€ a 40 ºC- y un plazo de recuperación de la inversión entre 8 y 10 años. Los resultados de este estudio pueden ser de gran utilidad a la hora de determinar la viabilidad de utilización de sistemas similares para suministrar la demanda de agua caliente de agroindustrias y explotaciones agropecuarias, o para otras aplicaciones en las que se demande agua a temperaturas distintas de la habitual en uso doméstico (60 ºC). En cada caso, los rendimientos y la rentabilidad vendrán determinados por la irradiación de la zona, la temperatura del agua requerida y la curva de demanda de los procesos específicos. ABSTRACT The aim of this thesis is to contribute to the development and use of solar energy as an alternative for producing hot water in the agribusiness sector. Hot water supply is a key issue for a great many agribusinesses and agricultural holdings. Both hot water demand times and required tank water temperature (rTWT) are highly variable, where the demand profile tends to differ from domestic use. Further research is needed on how differences in rTWT influence the performance and feasibility of these systems. The main objective of this thesis is to characterize the performance and test the feasibility of an evacuated tube collector (ETC) solar water heating (SWH) system providing water at a higher temperature than is usual for such systems. The aim is to determine what influence the rTWT has on the system’s energy efficiency, quantify the volume of hot water that the system is capable of supplying at the respective rTWT and establish whether SWH is feasible as a booster supply system for the different analysed rTWTs. To do this, a prototype water heating system has been designed, installed and commissioned and its performance monitored at different rTWTs under real operating conditions. The quantitative results show that a higher rTWT results in a lower energy supply to the tank, where the differences may be greater than 1000 Wh m-2 d-1 from 40 ºC to 80 ºC for insolation values of around 8000 Wh m-2 d-1 (system efficiency ranges from 73% to 56%). The drop in supply is due to lower collector efficiency and greater heat losses from the pipe system. As regards water supplied at the rTWT, the insolation required for the first withdrawal of water to take place is greater at higher rTWTs, where the time between withdrawals increases and the number of withdrawals decreases throughout the day. As rTWT increases, the volume of water supplied at the rTWT decreases due to factors such as lower collector efficiency, pipe system heat losses, energy stored in the water at below the rTWT and more energy being extracted from the system by water heating. For a rTWT of 80 ºC, much of the energy is stored in the tank at below the rTWT at the end of the day. A booster supply system would be required to take advantage of this energy, as overnight tank heat losses may significantly reduce the usable energy available on the following day. It is often not feasible to use the solar system as a single supply system, especially at high rTWTs, as, unlike the supply from the solar heating system which does not produce hot water on many days of the year because insolation is below the required minimum, hot water demand is not seasonal. On the other hand, investment in a solar system as a booster system to meet part of a plant’s heat energy demand is highly recommended. The solar system’s estimated annual usable energy ranges from 1322 kWh m-2 to 1084 kWh m-2. Cost efficiency would be greatest if there were an existing electric boiler, where the payback period would be just a few years —from 5.7 years at 40 ºC to 7.2 years at 80 ºC—. Cost efficiency is also high if there is an existing diesel boiler with payback periods of under 10 years. In a fictitious industry with a demand of 100 kWh day-1 and an existing diesel boiler, the investment in the solar plant would be highly recommended at any rTWT, with a net present value similar to investment costs —12000 € at 80 ºC and 15000 € at 40 ºC— and a payback period of 10 years. The results of this study are potentially very useful for determining the feasibility of using similar systems for meeting the hot water demand of agribusinesses and arable and livestock farms or for other applications demanding water at temperatures not typical of domestic demand (60ºC). Performance and cost efficiency will be determined by the regional insolation, the required water temperature and the demand curve of the specific processes in each case.

Understanding and improving the chemical vapor deposition process for solar grade silicon production

Esta Tesis Doctoral se centra en la investigación del proceso de producción de polisilicio para aplicaciones fotovoltaicas (FV) por la vía química; mediante procesos de depósito en fase vapor (CVD). El polisilicio para la industria FV recibe el nombre de silicio de grado solar (SoG Si). Por un lado, el proceso que domina hoy en día la producción de SoG Si está basado en la síntesis, destilación y descomposición de triclorosilano (TCS) en un reactor CVD -denominado reactor Siemens-. El material obtenido mediante este proceso es de muy alta pureza, pero a costa de un elevado consumo energético. Así, para alcanzar los dos principales objetivos de la industria FV basada en silicio, bajos costes de producción y bajo tiempo de retorno de la energía invertida en su fabricación, es esencial disminuir el consumo energético de los reactores Siemens. Por otro lado, una alternativa al proceso Siemens considera la descomposición de monosilano (MS) en un reactor de lecho fluidizado (FBR). Este proceso alternativo tiene un consumo energético mucho menor que el de un reactor Siemens, si bien la calidad del material resultante es también menor; pero ésta puede ser suficiente para la industria FV. A día de hoy los FBR deben aún abordar una serie de retos para que su menor consumo energético sea una ventaja suficiente comparada con otras desventajas de estos reactores. En resumen, la investigación desarrollada se centra en el proceso de depósito de polysilicio por CVD a partir de TCS -reactor Siemens-; pero también se investiga el proceso de producción de SoG Si en los FBR exponiendo las fortalezas y debilidades de esta alternativa. Para poder profundizar en el conocimiento del proceso CVD para la producción de polisilicio es clave el conocimiento de las reacciones químicas fundamentales y cómo éstas influencian la calidad del producto resultante, al mismo tiempo que comprender los fenómenos responsables del consumo energético. Por medio de un reactor Siemens de laboratorio en el que se llevan a cabo un elevado número de experimentos de depósito de polisilicio de forma satisfactoria se adquiere el conocimiento previamente descrito. Se pone de manifiesto la complejidad de los reactores CVD y de los problemas asociados a la pérdidas de calor de estos procesos. Se identifican las contribuciones a las pérdidas de calor de los reactores CVD, éstas pérdidas de calor son debidas principalmente a los fenómenos de radiación y, conducción y convección vía gases. En el caso de los reactores Siemens el fenómeno que contribuye en mayor medida al alto consumo energético son las pérdidas de calor por radiación, mientras que en los FBRs tanto la radiación como el calor transferido por transporte másico contribuyen de forma importante. Se desarrolla un modelo teórico integral para el cálculo de las pérdidas de calor en reactores Siemens. Este modelo está formado a su vez por un modelo para la evaluación de las pérdidas de calor por radiación y modelos para la evaluación de las pérdidas de calor por conducción y convección vía gases. Se ponen de manifiesto una serie de limitaciones del modelo de pérdidas de calor por radiación, y se desarrollan una serie de modificaciones que mejoran el modelo previo. El modelo integral se valida por medio un reactor Siemens de laboratorio, y una vez validado se presenta su extrapolación a la escala industrial. El proceso de conversión de TCS y MS a polisilicio se investiga mediante modelos de fluidodinámica computacional (CFD). Se desarrollan modelados CFD para un reactor Siemens de laboratorio y para un prototipo FBR. Los resultados obtenidos mediante simulación son comparados, en ambos casos, con resultados experimentales. Los modelos desarrollados se convierten en herramientas para la identificación de aquellos parámetros que tienen mayor influencia en los procesos CVD. En el caso del reactor Siemens, ambos modelos -el modelo integral y el modelado CFD permiten el estudio de los parámetros que afectan en mayor medida al elevado consumo energético, y mediante su análisis se sugieren modificaciones para este tipo de reactores que se traducirían en un menor número de kilovatios-hora consumidos por kilogramo de silicio producido. Para el caso del FBR, el modelado CFD permite analizar el efecto de una serie de parámetros sobre la distribución de temperaturas en el lecho fluidizado; y dicha distribución de temperaturas está directamente relacionada con los principales retos de este tipo de reactores. Por último, existen nuevos conceptos de depósito de polisilicio; éstos se aprovechan de la ventaja teórica de un mayor volumen depositado por unidad de tiempo -cuando una mayor superficie de depósito está disponible- con el objetivo de reducir la energía consumida por los reactores Siemens. Estos conceptos se exploran mediante cálculos teóricos y pruebas en el reactor Siemens de laboratorio. ABSTRACT This Doctoral Thesis comprises research on polysilicon production for photovoltaic (PV) applications through the chemical route: chemical vapor deposition (CVD) process. PV polysilicon is named solar grade silicon (SoG Si). On the one hand, the besetting CVD process for SoG Si production is based on the synthesis, distillation, and decomposition of thriclorosilane (TCS) in the so called Siemens reactor; high purity silicon is obtained at the expense of high energy consumption. Thus, lowering the energy consumption of the Siemens process is essential to achieve the two wider objectives for silicon-based PV technology: low production cost and low energy payback time. On the other hand, a valuable variation of this process considers the use of monosilane (MS) in a fluidized bed reactor (FBR); lower output material quality is obtained but it may fulfil the requirements for the PV industry. FBRs demand lower energy consumption than Siemens reactors but further research is necessary to address the actual challenges of these reactors. In short, this work is centered in polysilicon CVD process from TCS -Siemens reactor-; but it also offers insights on the strengths and weaknesses of the FBR for SoG Si production. In order to aid further development in polysilicon CVD is key the understanding of the fundamental reactions and how they influence the product quality, at the same time as to comprehend the phenomena responsible for the energy consumption. Experiments conducted in a laboratory Siemens reactor prove the satisfactory operation of the prototype reactor, and allow to acquire the knowledge that has been described. Complexity of the CVD reactors is stated and the heat loss problem associated with polysilicon CVD is addressed. All contributions to the energy consumption of Siemens reactors and FBRs are put forward; these phenomena are radiation and, conduction and convection via gases heat loss. In a Siemens reactor the major contributor to the energy consumption is radiation heat loss; in case of FBRs radiation and heat transfer due to mass transport are both important contributors. Theoretical models for radiation, conduction and convection heat loss in a Siemens reactor are developed; shaping a comprehensive theoretical model for heat loss in Siemens reactors. Limitations of the radiation heat loss model are put forward, and a novel contribution to the existing model is developed. The comprehensive model for heat loss is validated through a laboratory Siemens reactor, and results are scaled to industrial reactors. The process of conversion of TCS and MS gases to solid polysilicon is investigated by means of computational fluid-dynamics models. CFD models for a laboratory Siemens reactor and a FBR prototype are developed. Simulated results for both CVD prototypes are compared with experimental data. The developed models are used as a tool to investigate the parameters that more strongly influence both processes. For the Siemens reactors, both, the comprehensive theoretical model and the CFD model allow to identify the parameters responsible for the great power consumption, and thus, suggest some modifications that could decrease the ratio kilowatts-hour per kilogram of silicon produced. For the FBR, the CFD model allows to explore the effect of a number of parameters on the thermal distribution of the fluidized bed; that is the main actual challenge of these type of reactors. Finally, there exist new deposition surface concepts that take advantage of higher volume deposited per time unit -when higher deposition area is available- trying to reduce the high energy consumption of the Siemens reactors. These novel concepts are explored by means of theoretical calculations and tests in the laboratory Siemens prototype.

Investigación sobre la aplicación de energía solar a una depuradora convencional de fangos activos

El consumo de energía es responsable de una parte importante de las emisiones a la atmósfera de CO2, que es uno de los principales causantes del efecto invernadero en nuestro planeta. El aprovechamiento de la energía solar para la producción de agua caliente, permite economizar energía y disminuir el impacto del consumo energético sobre el medio ambiente y por tanto un menor impacto medioambiental. El objetivo de la presente investigación consiste en estudiar el aprovechamiento solar para el calentamiento de los fangos en los digestores anaerobios mediante agua caliente circulando en el interior de un serpentín que rodea la superficie de dicho digestor, como apoyo a los métodos convencionales del calentamiento de fangos como la resistencia eléctrica o el intercambiador de calor mediante la energía obtenida por el gas metano producido en la digestión anaerobia. Para el estudio se utilizaron 3 digestores, dos delos cuales se calentaron con agua caliente en el interior de un serpentín (uno aislado mediante una capa de fibra de vidrio y poliuretano y otro sin aislar).El tercer digestor no tenía calentamiento exterior con el objetivo de observar su comportamiento y comparar su evolución con el resto de los digestores .La comparación de los digestores 1 y 2 nos permitió estudiar la conveniencia de proveer de aislamiento al digestor. La transferencia de calor mediante serpentín de cobre dio valores comprendidos entre 83 y 92%. La aplicación de la instalación a una depuradora a escala real para mantenimiento en el interior del digestor a T=32ºC en diferentes climas: climas templados, cálidos y fríos, consistió en el cálculo de la superficie de colectores solares y superficie de serpentín necesario para cubrir las necesidades energéticas anuales de dicho digestor, así como el estudio de rentabilidad de la instalación, dando los mejores resultados para climas cálidos con períodos de retorno de 12 años y una tasa interna de rentabilidad (TIR) del 16% obteniendo una cobertura anual del 79% de las necesidades energéticas con energía solar térmica. Energy consumption accounts for a significant part of the emissions of CO2, which is one of the main causes of the greenhouse effect on our planet. The use of solar energy for hot water production. can save energy and reduce the impact of energy consumption on the environment and therefore a reduced environmental impact. The objective of this research is to study the solar utilization for heating the sludge in anaerobic digesters by hot water circulating inside a coil surrounding the surface of digester, to support conventional heating methods sludge as the electrical resistance or heat exchanger by energy generated by the methane gas produced in the anaerobic digestion. To study 3 digesters used two models which are heated with hot water within a coil (one insulated by a layer of fiberglass and polyurethane and other uninsulated) .The third digester had no external heating in order to observe their behavior and compare their evolution with the rest of the .The comparison digesters digesters 1 and 2 allowed us to study the advisability of providing insulation to the digester. Heat transfer through copper coil gave values between 83 and 92%. The installation application to a treatment for maintaining full scale within the digester at T = 32ºC in different climates: temperate, warm and cold climates, consisted of calculating the surface area of solar collectors and coil required to cover the annual energy needs of the digester, and the study of profitability of the installation, giving the best results for hot climates with return periods of 12 years and an internal rate of return (IRR) of 16% achieving an annual coverage of 79 % of energy needs with solar energy.

The folded plate model in structural analysis. Elastic, plastic and dynamic formulations for nonprismatic structures

A specific numerical procedure for the analysis of arbitrary nonprismatic folded plate structures is presented. An elastic model is studied and compared with a harmonic solution for a prismatic structure. An extension to the plastic analysis is developed, and the influence of the structural geometry and loading pattern is analyzed. Nonprismatic practical cases, with arbitrary geometry and loading are shown, as well in the elastic range as in the plastic one. Finally, a dynamic formulation is outlined

Analysis, reliability and optimization of reinforced concrete 2-D structures

In this paper a consistent analysis of reinforced concrete (RC) two-dimensional (2-D) structures,namely slab structures subjected to in-plane and out-plane forces, is presented. By using this method of analysis the well established methodology for dimensioning and verifying RC sections of beam structures is extended to 2-D structures. The validity of the proposed analysis results is checked by comparing them with some published experimental test results. Several examples show some of these proposed analysis features, such as the influence of the reinforcement layout on the service and ultimate behavior of a slab structure and the non straightforward problem of the optimal dimension at a slab point subjected to several loading cases. Also, in these examples, the method applications to design situations as multiple steel families and non orthogonal reinforcement layout are commented.

A consistent method of analysis of RC shell structures

In this paper some topics related to the design of reinforced concrete (RC) shells are addressed. The influence of the reinforcement layout on the service and ultimate behavior of the shell structure is commented. The well established methodology for dimensioning and verifying RC sections of beam structures is extended. In this way it is possible to treat within a unified procedure the design and verification of RC two dimensional structures, in particular membrane and shell structures. Realistic design situations as multiple steel farnilies and non orthogonal reinforcement layout can be handled. Finally, some examples and applications of the proposed methodology are presented.

Paul–Straubel–Kingdon trap for true zero-point confinement of an individual ion and reservoir

A modification of the Paul–Straubel trap previously described by us may profitably be operated in a Paul–Straubel–Kingdon (PSK) mode during the initial loading of an individual ion into the trap. Thereby the coating of the trap ring electrode by the atomic beam directed upon it in earlier experiments is eliminated, as is the ionization of an already trapped ion. Coating created serious problems as it spot-wise changed the work function of the ring electrode, which caused large, uncontrolled dc fields in the trap center that prevented zero-point confinement. Operating the Paul–Straubel trap with a small negative bias on the ring electrode wire is all that is required to realize the PSK mode. In this mode the tiny ring trap in the center of the long, straight wire section is surrounded by a second trapping well shaped like a long, thin-walled cylindrical shell and extending to the end-caps. There, ions may be conveniently created in this well without danger of coating the ring with barium. In addition, the long second well is useful as a multi-ion reservoir.

Fluctuating silicate:nitrate ratios and coastal plankton food webs

Marine diatoms require dissolved silicate to form an external shell, and their growth becomes Si-limited when the atomic ratio of silicate to dissolved inorganic nitrogen (Si:DIN) approaches 1:1, also known as the “Redfield ratio.” Fundamental changes in the diatom-to-zooplankton-to-higher trophic level food web should occur when this ratio falls below 1:1 and the proportion of diatoms in the phytoplankton community is reduced. We quantitatively substantiate these predictions by using a variety of data from the Mississippi River continental shelf, a system in which the Si:DIN loading ratio has declined from around 3:1 to 1:1 during this century because of land-use practices in the watershed. We suggest that, on this shelf, when the Si:DIN ratio in the river decreases to less than 1:1, then (i) copepod abundance changes from >75% to <30% of the total mesozooplankton, (ii) zooplankton fecal pellets become a minor component of the in situ primary production consumed, and (iii) bottom-water oxygen consumption rates become less dependent on relatively fast-sinking (diatom-rich) organic matter packaged mostly as zooplankton fecal pellets. This coastal ecosystem appears to be a pelagic food web dynamically poised to be either a food web composed of diatoms and copepods or one with potentially disruptive harmful algal blooms. The system is directed between these two ecosystem states by Mississippi River water quality, which is determined by land-use practices far inland.