La legalidad de las inversiones como un requisito para la protección de los tratados internacionales de inversiones (Tema Central)

Un gran número de acuerdos internacionales de inversiones (AII) contiene la formulación “inversiones realizadas de conformidad con las leyes nacionales” o una enunciación similar. En términos generales, la tendencia ha sido considerar que esta formulación hace referencia a la legalidad y a la validez de la inversión. El objetivo del presente trabajo es analizar en qué medida las inversiones extranjeras realizadas ilegalmente pueden beneficiarse de la protección de los AII y de su mecanismo de solución de controversias. Para ello, la primera parte identificará las posibles localizaciones de esta formulación y sus implicaciones. La segunda examinará qué sucede con las inversiones que se tornan ilegales, si la ilegalidad debe ser tratada como una objeción jurisdiccional o como una cuestión de fondo y, finalmente, si la ilegalidad es consecuencia de la violación de normas substantivas o también de meras formalidades.

The Judicial Dimension of the European Neighbourhood Policy. EU Diplomacy Paper 08/2013, November 2013

In this paper, the expression “neighbourhood policy” of the European Union (EU) is understood in a broad way which includes the members of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) contracting parties to the European Economic Area (EEA), the EFTA State Switzerland, candidate states, the countries of the European Neighbour-hood Policy (ENP), and Russia. The European Court of Justice (ECJ) is the centre of gravity in the judicial dimension of this policy. The innermost circle of integration after the EU itself comprises the EFTA States who are party to the European Economic Area. With the EFTA Court, they have their own common court. The existence of two courts – the ECJ and the EFTA Court – raises the question of homogeneity of the case law. The EEA homogeneity rules resemble the ones of the Lugano Convention. The EFTA Court is basically obliged to follow or take into account relevant ECJ case law. But even if the ECJ has gone first, there may be constellations where the EFTA Court comes to the conclusion that it must go its own way. Such constellations may be given if there is new scientific evidence, if the ECJ has left certain questions open, where there is relevant case law of the European Court of Human Rights or where, in light of the specific circumstances of the case, there is room for “creative homogeneity”. However, in the majority of its cases the EFTA Court is faced with novel legal questions. In such cases, the ECJ, its Advocates General and the Court of First Instance make reference to the EFTA Court’s case law. The question may be posed whether the EEA could serve as a model for other regional associations. For the ENP states, candidate States and Russia this is hard to imagine. Their courts will to varying degrees look to the ECJ when giving interpretation to the relevant agreements. The Swiss Government is – at least for the time being – unwilling to make a second attempt to join the EEA. The European Commission has therefore proposed to the Swiss to dock their sectoral agreements with the EU to the institutions of the EFTA pillar, the EFTA Surveillance Authority (ESA) and the EFTA Court. Switzerland would then negotiate the right to nominate a member of the ESA College and of the EFTA Court. The Swiss Government has, however, opted for another model. Swiss courts would continue to look to the ECJ, as they did in the past, and conflicts should also in the future be resolved by diplomatic means. But the ECJ would play a decisive role in dispute settlement. It would, upon unilateral request of one side, give an “authoritative” interpretation of EU law as incorporated into the relevant bilateral agreement. In a “Non-Paper” which was drafted by the chief negotiators, the interpretations of the ECJ are even characterised as binding. The decision-making power would, however, remain with the Joint Committees where Switzerland could say no. The Swiss Government assumes that after a negative decision by the ECJ it would be able to negotiate a compromise solution with the Commission without the ECJ being able to express itself on the outcome. The Government has therefore not tried to emphasise that the ECJ would not be a foreign court. Whether the ECJ would accept its intended role, is an open question. And if it would, the Swiss Government would have to explain to its voters that Switzerland retains the freedom to disregard such a binding decision and that for this reason the ECJ is not only no foreign court, but no adjudicating court at all.

Report of the Department of Public Works of the State of California.

Reports of the divisions of the Dept. also issued separately.

Evidências empíricas na proteção do investimento direto estrangeiro em Angola e o sistema de solução de controvérsias

Considerando que houve uma intensificação no fluxo de investimento estrangeiro direto (IED) tanto no mundo quanto especialmente em Angola nos últimos anos, é a intenção deste trabalho explorar quais ferramentas outorgam ao investidor privado um sistema de proteção do seu investimento bem como sistema institucionalizado de solução de controvérsias (e.g. ICSID) por meio de Acordos de Proteção e Promoção de Investimentos (APPIs) firmados por Angola comparados à proteção que poderá ser garantida aos investidores privados brasileiros na ausência de tais documentos legais. A pergunta inerente a este trabalho é, portanto, como certo grau de proteção é outorgado aos investidores brasileiros em Angola tendo em vista as atuais correntes e tendências no direito internacional do investimento e o fluxo crescente de investimento brasileiro em Angola.

Seawater carbonate chemistry, larval settlement and growth rate during experiments with coral Porites astreoides, 2008

In response to the increases in pCO2 projected in the 21st century, adult coral growth and calcification are expected to decrease significantly. However, no published studies have investigated the effect of elevated pCO2 on earlier life history stages of corals. Porites astreoides larvae were collected from reefs in Key Largo, Florida, USA, settled and reared in controlled saturation state seawater. Three saturation states were obtained, using 1 M HCl additions, corresponding to present (380 ppm) and projected pCO2 scenarios for the years 2065 (560 ppm) and 2100 (720 ppm). The effect of saturation state on settlement and post-settlement growth was evaluated. Saturation state had no significant effect on percent settlement; however, skeletal extension rate was positively correlated with saturation state, with ~50% and 78% reductions in growth at the mid and high pCO2 treatments compared to controls, respectively.

See you in Geneva? Democracy, the Rule of Law and the WTO (Working Paper 16)

This paper is a constructivist attempt to understand a global political space where states as actors (the traditional domain of international relations theory and international law) are joined by international organizations, firms, NGOs, and others. Today we know that many supposedly private or international orders (meaning sources of order other than the central institutions of the territorial state) are engaged in the regulation of large domains of collective life in a world where the sources of power are multiple, sovereignties are overlapping, and anarchy is meaningless. The paper begins with an attempt, discussed in the first section, to sort out what the rule of law might mean in the context of the WTO, where we soon see that it can only be understood by also considering the meaning of Administrative Law. Much of the debate about rule of law depends on positivist and centralist theories of “law,” whose inadequacy for my purposes leads, in the second section, to a discussion of legal pluralism and implicit law in legal theory. These approaches offer an alternative theoretical framework that respects the role of the state while not seeing it as the only source of normativity. The third section looks directly at WTO law and dispute settlement. I tr y to show that the sources and interpretations of law in the WTO and the trading system cannot be reduced to the Dispute Settlement Body. I conclude in the fourth section with some suggestions on how a WTO rule of law could be understood as democratic.

Public interests in water concession disputes

The flux of foreign investment into the water industry led to the internationalisation of contracts and of the method of settlement of possible disputes. When disputes over the performance of a water concession give origin to investor-state arbitrations, public authorities are put in a challenging position. The state need to combine two different roles – its role in the provision of services of public interest and the fulfilment of its international legal obligations arising from international investment agreements. The complexity of this relationship is patent in a variety of procedural and substantive issues that have been surfacing in arbitration proceedings conducted before the International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes. The purpose of this dissertation is to discuss the impact of investment arbitration on the protection of public interests associated with water services. In deciding these cases arbitrators are contributing significantly in shaping the contours and substance of an emerging international economic water services regime. Through the looking glass of arbitration awards one can realise the substantial consequences that the international investment regime has been producing on water markets and how significantly it has been impacting the public interests associated with water services. Due consideration of the public interests in water concession disputes requires concerted action in two different domains: changing the investment arbitration mechanism, by promoting the transparency of proceedings and the participation of non-parties; and changing the regulatory framework that underpins investments in water services. Combined, these improvements are likely to infuse public interests into water concession arbitrations.

Using indicators of deforestation and land-use dynamics to support conservation strategies: A case study of central Rondonia, Brazil

In Rondonia State, Brazil, settlement processes have cleared 68,000 km 2 of tropical forests since the 1970s. The intensity of deforestation has differed by region depending on driving factors like roads and economic activities. Different histories of land-use activities and rates of change have resulted in mosaics of forest patches embedded in an agricultural matrix. Yet, most assessments of deforestation and its effects on vegetation, soil and water typically focus on landscape patterns of current conditions, yet historical deforestation dynamics can influence current conditions strongly. Here, we develop and describe the use of four land-use dynamic indicators to capture historical land-use changes of catchments and to measure the rate of deforestation (annual deforestation rate), forest regeneration level (secondary forest mean proportion), time since disturbance (mean time since deforestation) and deforestation profile (deforestation profile curvature). We used the proposed indices to analyze a watershed located in central Rondonia. Landsat TM and ETM+ images were used to produce historical land-use maps of the last 18 years, each even year from 1984 to 2002 for 20 catchments. We found that the land-use dynamics indicators are able to distinguish catchments with different land-use change profiles. Four categories of historical land-use were identified: old and dominant pasture cover on small properties, recent deforestation and dominance of secondary growth, old extensive pastures and large forest remnants and, recent deforestation, pasture and large forest remnants. Knowing historical deforestation processes is important to develop appropriate conservation strategies and define priorities and actions for conserving forests currently under deforestation. (C) 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

The tale of a Trojan horse or the quest for market access? China and the World Trade Organization

In 2001, China finally joined the WTO. The accession of China was looked forward to by many WTO members and China itself. However, observers had some fears that the Chinese accession would prove to be a Trojan horse, disrupting the working of the WTO. This paper looks into the Chinese accession and its involvement in the WTO Dispute Settlement and argues that these fears seem so far to be unfounded.

L'effectivité des Conventions anti-corruption internationales : vers une Cour pénale internationale en criminalité économique pour punir le vol d'Etat

This doctoral thesis proposes an International Criminal Court Specialized in Economic Crime (ICC/EC) as a solution to the main obstacles to the effectiveness of international anti-corruption conventions studied. In fact, the dispute settlement systems of the international anti-corruption Conventions do not provide sufficient guarantees of effectiveness, and offenses and crimes of corruption are not under the jurisdiction of the International Criminal Court (ICC) derived from the Rome Statute of 2000. In a first part, this work analyzes seven international anti-corruption Conventions adopted between 1996 and 2003, respectively, by the Organization of American States (OAS), the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), the European Union (EU), the Council of Europe (CoE), the African Union (AU) and the United Nations (UN). In a second part, this study highlights a deficit of rationalization and optimization of offenses included in the conventions: an incomplete criminalization of legal persons for corruption, an equally insufficient criminalization for corruption of political leaders benefiting both from criminal and civil immunities, as well as the limited outcome of international asset recovery de-rived from corruption. Finally, given the previous analysis made, this thesis concludes with a pro-posal for an independent ICC/EC specific to economic crimes in order to overcome the major obstacles highlighted and which strongly affect the effectiveness of the international anti-corruption conventions. - Cet ouvrage de thèse doctorale propose, comme solution principale aux obstacles à l'effectivité des Conventions anti-corruption internationales étudiées, une Cour Pénale Internationale Spécialisée en Criminalité Economique (CPI/CE). En effet, les systèmes de règlement des différends des Conven¬tions anti-corruption internationales n'offrent pas suffisamment de gage d'effectivité et les délits et crimes de corruption transnationale ne sont pas de la compétence de la Cour Pénale Internationale (CPI) issue du statut de Rome de 2000. Dans un premier temps, le présent ouvrage analyse sept Conventions anti-corruption internationales adoptées entre 1996 et 2003, respectivement, par l'Organisation des Etats Américains (OEA), l'Organisation de Coopération et de Développement Economiques (OCDE), l'Union européenne (UE), le Conseil de l'Europe (CoE), l'Union Africaine (UA) et l'Organisation des Nations Unies (ONU). Dans un deuxième temps, l'ouvrage met en lumière un déficit de rationalisation et d'optimisation des incriminations que contiennent les Conventions, dont notamment : une incrimination lacunaire des personnes morales pour corruption, une incrimination tout aussi insuffisante pour corruption des dirigeants politiques au bénéfice d'immunités pénale et civile et une restitu¬tion internationale des avoirs issus de la corruption à portée limitée. Finalement, c'est au vu de l'analyse effectuée que le présent ouvrage conclut avec la proposition d'une CPI/CE indépendante et spécifique aux crimes économiques afin de pallier au mieux les obstacles majeurs mis en exergue et qui nuisent fortement à l'effectivité des Conventions anti-corruption internationales.

The European sugar regime new legislation and wto rules

[cat] El 20 de febrer de 2006 es va aprovar el Reglament núm. 318/2006 del Consell que reforma l'Organització Comuna de Mercats del sucre. L'article analitza els canvis introduïts en el nou règim europeu del sucre i valora la seva adequació a les normes i demandes internacionals de liberalització del comerç agrícola. Es conclou que la reforma ha estat el mínim necessari per fer front als reptes internacionals: la recent resolució de l'Òrgan de Solució de Diferències de l'Organització Mundial del Comerç i les demandes de liberalització plantejades en el marc de la Ronda de Doha.

The European sugar regime new legislation and wto rules

[cat] El 20 de febrer de 2006 es va aprovar el Reglament núm. 318/2006 del Consell que reforma l'Organització Comuna de Mercats del sucre. L'article analitza els canvis introduïts en el nou règim europeu del sucre i valora la seva adequació a les normes i demandes internacionals de liberalització del comerç agrícola. Es conclou que la reforma ha estat el mínim necessari per fer front als reptes internacionals: la recent resolució de l'Òrgan de Solució de Diferències de l'Organització Mundial del Comerç i les demandes de liberalització plantejades en el marc de la Ronda de Doha.

Etelä- ja Itä-Kiinan meret aluekiistojen ja valtakamppailun näyttämönä

Etelä- ja Itä-Kiinan meret ovat maailman liikennöidyimpiä – ja kiistellyimpiä – merialueita. Merialueita ympäröivät valtiot ovat ajautuneet kiistelemään jopa pinnanalaisista karikoista, mutta miksi? Aluekiistojen taustalta löytyy useita geo-poliittisia tekijöitä ja valtioiden intressien ristiriitaisuus tekee kiistoista hankalia ratkaista. Alueen suurvalta Kiina on modernisoinut asevoimiaan ja Yhdysvallat pyrkii yhteistyöhön Kiinaa ympäröivien maiden kanssa sekoittaen entisestään alueen voimasuhteita.

Le droit des particuliers d'invoquer les accords internationaux de la Communauté européenne devant les cours nationales

Le critère de l’effet direct des accords conclus par la Communauté européenne n’a pas encore été étudié de manière exhaustive par la jurisprudence de la Cour européenne de Justice. Certaines affaires sont trompeuses puisqu’elles mèneraient à croire que l’effet direct des ententes multilatérales peut être atteint en optimisant les mécanismes internationaux de résolution des conflits. Ceci n’est pas convaincant, en premier lieu, puisque dans le contexte des relations intergouvernementales, le contrôle de l’action des parties contractantes demeure élusif. Toute amélioration des procédures judiciaires, particulièrement en contexte multilatéral, est destinée à être marginalisée tant que l’on est confiné aux mécanismes intergouvernementaux de résolution des conflits. En second lieu, les implications de cela sur l’effet direct sont ténues. L’effet direct, ou le droit d'agir en justice des individus, n’est pas simplement une question légale abstraite ; il implique aussi des décisions de politique. Le désir d’application effective est mesuré avec d’autres objectifs tels que le maintien d’un certain niveau de démocratie et l’instrumentalisation des traités poursuivant des objectifs de politique interne et étrangère. L’examen de l’ancienne question de l’effet direct en combinant certains éléments de doctrine juridique et d’analyse de science politique offre un meilleur aperçu sur le critère de l’effet direct que la simple dépendance de la jurisprudence émergente.

L’exception de moralité publique dans les accords de l’OMC et son application dans le différend canado-européen sur la chasse au phoque

Parmi les critiques visant l'Organisation mondiale du commerce (OMC), il est souvent reproché à celle-ci d’accorder trop peu d’importance aux préoccupations non commerciales des consommateurs et des États, reflet de leurs valeurs sociétales ou culturelles, sous prétexte de lutter contre les entraves au commerce international. Pourtant, dans le domaine du commerce des marchandises, l’article XX du GATT prévoit certaines exceptions générales, permettant éventuellement aux États de justifier une mesure restrictive pour le commerce, notamment pour des raisons de protection de la moralité publique. Or, cette « exception de moralité publique », rarement invoquée à ce jour, est au cœur du différend commercial opposant actuellement le Canada à l’Union européenne, après l’embargo adopté en 2009 par celle-ci sur les produits issus de la chasse au phoque, considérée comme cruelle par de nombreux Européens. Dans ce mémoire, nous avons tenté d’envisager l’issue possible de ce litige. À cette fin, nous avons réalisé une étude préliminaire du concept de moralité publique en droit international public et présenté en détails le contexte, notamment politique, de ce différend; puis nous avons procédé à son analyse par étapes, selon la méthode retenue à ce jour par l’Organe de règlement des différends (ORD). À l’issue de nos réflexions, nous avons conclu que l’ORD devrait constater que la mesure européenne contestée vise à répondre à un réel souci de protection de la moralité publique en Europe; toutefois, il est probable, selon nous, que l’embargo européen ne soit pas considéré comme « nécessaire » à cette fin, au sens de l’article XX du GATT : en effet, l’ORD estimera sans doute que l’Union européenne aurait pu mettre en œuvre des solutions moins incompatibles avec ses obligations au titre du GATT. Nous pensons donc, hélas, que l’issue de ce litige ne satisfera pas ceux qui réclament une plus grande ouverture de l’OMC vis-à-vis de considérations non commerciales légitimes.