New developments in lycopene analysis by spectroscopic and chromatographic techniques, accompanied by mathematical modelling

Comunicación Oral sobre los resultados obtenidos en el estudio de las propiedades del lycopeno presente en el tomate como compuesto bioactivo. Se realizó la identificación y cuantificación por diferentes metodologías experimentales. Se muestran los resultados analíticos comapartivamente con distintas técnicas.

A single gene for lycopene cyclase, phytoene synthase, and regulation of carotene biosynthesis in Phycomyces

Previous complementation and mapping of mutations that change the usual yellow color of the Zygomycete Phycomyces blakesleeanus to white or red led to the definition of two structural genes for carotene biosynthesis. We have cloned one of these genes, carRA, by taking advantage of its close linkage to the other, carB, responsible for phytoene dehydrogenase. The sequences of the wild type and six mutants have been established, compared with sequences in other organisms, and correlated with the mutant phenotypes. The carRA and carB coding sequences are separated by 1,381 untranslated nucleotides and are divergently transcribed. Gene carRA contains separate domains for two enzymes, lycopene cyclase and phytoene synthase, and regulates the overall activity of the pathway and its response to physical and chemical stimuli from the environment. The lycopene cyclase domain of carRA derived from a duplication of a gene from a common ancestor of fungi and Brevibacterium linens; the phytoene synthase domain is similar to the phytoene and squalene synthases of many organisms; but the regulatory functions appear to be specific to Phycomyces.

One ring or two? Determination of ring number in carotenoids by lycopene ɛ-cyclases

Carotenoids in the photosynthetic membranes of plants typically contain two β-rings (e.g., β-carotene and zeaxanthin) or one ɛ- and one β-ring (e.g., lutein). Carotenoids with two ɛ-rings are uncommon. We reported earlier that the Arabidopsis thaliana lycopene ɛ-cyclase (LCYe) adds one ɛ-ring to the symmetrical linear substrate lycopene, whereas the structurally related lycopene β-cyclase (LCYb) adds two β-rings. Here we describe a cDNA encoding LCYe in romaine lettuce (Lactuca sativa var. romaine), one of the few plant species known to accumulate substantial quantities of a carotenoid with two ɛ-rings: lactucaxanthin. The product of the lettuce cDNA, similar in sequence to the Arabidopsis LCYe (77% amino acid identity), efficiently converted lycopene into the bicyclic ɛ-carotene in a heterologous Escherichia coli system. Regions of the lettuce and Arabidopsis ɛ-cyclases involved in the determination of ring number were mapped by analysis of chimeric ɛ-cyclases constructed by using an inverse PCR approach. A single amino acid was found to act as a molecular switch: lettuce LCYe mutant H457L added only one ɛ-ring to lycopene, whereas the complementary Arabidopsis LCYe mutant, L448H, added two ɛ-rings. An R residue in this position also yields a bi-ɛ-cyclase for both the lettuce and Arabidopsis enzymes. Construction and analysis of chimera of related enzymes with differing catalytic activities provide an informative approach that may be of particular utility for studying membrane-associated enzymes that cannot easily be crystallized or modeled to existing crystal structures.

Arachidonic Acid Alters Tomato HMG Expression and Fruit Growth and Induces 3-Hydroxy-3-Methylglutaryl Coenzyme A Reductase-Independent Lycopene Accumulation1

Regulation of isoprenoid end-product synthesis required for normal growth and development in plants is not well understood. To investigate the extent to which specific genes for the enzyme 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase (HMGR) are involved in end-product regulation, we manipulated expression of the HMG1 and HMG2 genes in tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) fruit using arachidonic acid (AA). In developing young fruit AA blocked fruit growth, inhibited HMG1, and activated HMG2 expression. These results are consistent with other reports indicating that HMG1 expression is closely correlated with growth processes requiring phytosterol production. In mature-green fruit AA strongly induced the expression of HMG2, PSY1 (the gene for phytoene synthase), and lycopene accumulation before the normal onset of carotenoid synthesis and ripening. The induction of lycopene synthesis was not blocked by inhibition of HMGR activity using mevinolin, suggesting that cytoplasmic HMGR is not required for carotenoid synthesis. Our results are consistent with the function of an alternative plastid isoprenoid pathway (the Rohmer pathway) that appears to direct the production of carotenoids during tomato fruit ripening.

Cardiovascular benefits of lycopene : fantasy or reality

Peer reviewed

Effects of lycopene on the induction of foam cell formation by modified LDL.

The effect of lycopene on macrophage foam cell formation induced by modified low-density lipoprotein (LDL) was studied. Human monocyte-derived macrophages (HMDM) were incubated with lycopene in the presence or absence of native LDL (nLDL) or LDL modified by oxidation (oxLDL), aggregation (aggLDL), or acetylation (acLDL). The cholesterol content, lipid synthesis, scavenger receptor activity, and the secretion of inflammatory [interleukin (IL)-1β and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α] and anti-inflammatory (IL-10) cytokines was determined. Lycopene was found to decrease the synthesis of cholesterol ester in incubations without LDL or with oxLDL while triacylglycerol synthesis was reduced in the presence of oxLDL and aggLDL. Scavenger receptor activity as assessed by the uptake of acLDL was decreased by ∼30% by lycopene. In addition, lycopene inhibited IL-10 secretion by up to 74% regardless of the presence of nLDL or aggLDL but did not affect IL-1β or TNF-α release. Lycopene also reduced the relative abundance of mRNA transcripts for scavenger receptor A (SR-A) in THP-1 macrophages treated with aggLDL. These findings suggest that lycopene may reduce macrophage foam cell formation induced by modified LDL by decreasing lipid synthesis and downregulating the activity and expression of SR-A. However, these effects are accompanied by impaired secretion of the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10, suggesting that lycopene may also exert a concomitant proinflammatory effect.

Colour differentiation of high-lycopene tomato fruit through the addition of the colourless-epidermis (y) mutation

High-lycopene tomatoes (Solanum lycopersicum) are characterised by an intense red flesh-colour, due to an elevated concentration of the carotenoid, lycopene. However, this characteristic is only visible once fruit are cut open, making it impossible to differentiate intact high-lycopene fruit from standard tomato fruit, a clear market disadvantage. The reason that fruit colour of both high-lycopene and standard fruit looks almost identical from the outside is because tomato fruit normally contain the yellow flavonoid 'naringenin chalcone' in a thin layer of epidermal cells. It is this combination of naringenin chalcone and the underlying lycopene in the flesh that gives tomatoes their characteristic orange-red colour. By incorporation of the recessive colourless epidermis mutant allele 'y' (which prevents naringenin chalcone accumulation) into high-lycopene fruit, we have been able to create high-lycopene tomatoes (hp1.ogc.y) exhibiting a deep-pink colour visible from the outside. Hue angle of the skin of the high-lycopene 'y' mutant and a regular highlycopene tomato (hp1.ogc.Y) was 30 and 38°, respectively, while flesh values were similar at 31 and 32°, respectively. Removal of naringenin chalcone from the epidermis appeared to improve the visibility of underlying lycopene, such that fruit outer colour became a subsequent indicator of underlying flesh colour. The removal of epidermal pigmentation means that high-lycopene fruit can now be differentiated from standard tomato fruit in the market place without the need to cut fruit open.

Serum levels of lycopene, beta-carotene, and retinol and their correlation with sperm DNA damage in normospermic and infertile men

Background: Oxidative stress in reproductive system leads to sperm DNA damage and sperm membrane lipid peroxidation and may play an important role in the pathogenesis of male infertility, especially in idiopathic cases. Antioxidants such as carotenoids function against free radical damages. Objective: The aim of this study was to determine the levels of lycopene, beta-carotene and retinol in serum and their relationship with sperm DNA damage and lipid peroxidation in infertile and normospermic males. Materials and Methods: Sixty two infertile men and 71 normospermic men participated in this study. Blood and semen samples were collected from all subjects. Sperm DNA damage was measured using TUNEL method. Carotenoids, retinol, and malonedildehyde in serum were also determined. Results: DNA fragmentation was higher in infertile group comparing to control group. Serum levels of lycopene, beta-carotene and, vitamin A in infertile men were significantly lower than normospermic men (p< 0.001, =0.005, and =0.003 respectively). While serum MDA was not significantly different between two groups, MDA in seminal plasma of infertile men was significantly higher than control group (p< 0.001). Conclusion: We concluded that lycopene, beta-carotene, and retinol can reduce sperm DNA fragmentation and lipid peroxidation through their antioxidant effect. Therefore the DNA fragmentation assay and determination of antioxidants factors such as lycopene, beta-carotene and retinol, along with sperm analysis can be useful in diagnosis and treatment of men with idiopathic infertility.

Tomato Lycopene: Functional Proprieties and Health

The growing concerns for physical wellbeing and health have been reflected in the way we choose food in our table. Nowadays, we are all more informed consumers and choose healthier foods. On the other hand, stroke, cancer and atherosclerosis may be somehow minimized by the intake of some bioactive compounds present in food, the so-called nutraceuticals and functional foods. The aim of this work was to make a revision of the published studies about the effects of some bioactive compounds, namely lycopene in human health, in the prevention of diseases, thus playing the role of a functional food. Free radical in human body can induce cell damage and consequently can be responsible for the development of some cancers and chronic diseases. Lycopene is one of the most powerful antioxidants known, being the predominant carotenoid in tomato. The respective chemistry, bioavailability, and its functional role in the prevention of several diseases will be object of this work. On the other hand, the inclusion of lycopene in some foods can also be made by biotechnology and represents a way to recover the wastes in the tomato industry with nutritional positive effects in health.

Evaluation of brief dietary questions to estimate vegetable and fruit consumption – using serum carotenoids and red-cell folate

Objective: To evaluate responses to self-administered brief questions regarding consumption of vegetables and fruit by comparison with blood levels of serum carotenoids and red-cell folate. Design: A cross-sectional study in which participants reported their usual intake of fruit and vegetables in servings per day, and serum levels of five carotenoids (α-carotene, β-carotene, β-cryptoxanthin, lutein/zeaxanthin and lycopene) and red-cell folate were measured. Serum carotenoid levels were determined by high-performance liquid chromatography, and red-cell folate by an automated immunoassay system. Settings and subjects: Between October and December 2000, a sample of 1598 adults aged 25 years and over, from six randomly selected urban centres in Queensland, Australia, were examined as part of a national study conducted to determine the prevalence of diabetes and associated cardiovascular risk factors. Results: Statistically significant (P<0.01) associations with vegetable and fruit intake (categorised into groups: ≤1 serving, 2–3 servings and ≥4 servings per day) were observed for α-carotene, β-carotene, β-cryptoxanthin, lutein/zeaxanthin and red-cell folate. The mean level of these carotenoids and of red-cell folate increased with increasing frequency of reported servings of vegetables and fruit, both before and after adjusting for potential confounding factors. A significant association with lycopene was observed only for vegetable intake before adjusting for confounders. Conclusions: These data indicate that brief questions may be a simple and valuable tool for monitoring vegetable and fruit intake in this population.

Development of Sample Pretreatment and Liquid Chromatographic Techniques for Antioxidative Compounds

In this study, novel methodologies for the determination of antioxidative compounds in herbs and beverages were developed. Antioxidants are compounds that can reduce, delay or inhibit oxidative events. They are a part of the human defense system and are obtained through the diet. Antioxidants are naturally present in several types of foods, e.g. in fruits, beverages, vegetables and herbs. Antioxidants can also be added to foods during manufacturing to suppress lipid oxidation and formation of free radicals under conditions of cooking or storage and to reduce the concentration of free radicals in vivo after food ingestion. There is growing interest in natural antioxidants, and effective compounds have already been identified from antioxidant classes such as carotenoids, essential oils, flavonoids and phenolic acids. The wide variety of sample matrices and analytes presents quite a challenge for the development of analytical techniques. Growing demands have been placed on sample pretreatment. In this study, three novel extraction techniques, namely supercritical fluid extraction (SFE), pressurised hot water extraction (PHWE) and dynamic sonication-assisted extraction (DSAE) were studied. SFE was used for the extraction of lycopene from tomato skins and PHWE was used in the extraction of phenolic compounds from sage. DSAE was applied to the extraction of phenolic acids from Lamiaceae herbs. In the development of extraction methodologies, the main parameters of the extraction were studied and the recoveries were compared to those achieved by conventional extraction techniques. In addition, the stability of lycopene was also followed under different storage conditions. For the separation of the antioxidative compounds in the extracts, liquid chromatographic methods (LC) were utilised. Two novel LC techniques, namely ultra performance liquid chromatography (UPLC) and comprehensive two-dimensional liquid chromatography (LCxLC) were studied and compared with conventional high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) for the separation of antioxidants in beverages and Lamiaceae herbs. In LCxLC, the selection of LC mode, column dimensions and flow rates were studied and optimised to obtain efficient separation of the target compounds. In addition, the separation powers of HPLC, UPLC, HPLCxHPLC and HPLCxUPLC were compared. To exploit the benefits of an integrated system, in which sample preparation and final separation are performed in a closed unit, dynamic sonication-assisted extraction was coupled on-line to a liquid chromatograph via a solid-phase trap. The increased sensitivity was utilised in the extraction of phenolic acids from Lamiaceae herbs. The results were compared to those of achieved by the LCxLC system.

Estudo comparativo do teor de (15E)-licopeno por CLAE-DAD entre lavouras de tomate submetidas aos manejos TOMATEC e tradicional

O tomate (Solanum lycopersicum L.) é considerado um alimento funcional por sua propriedade antioxidante. O fruto contém dos carotenoides, ácido L-ascórbico, vitamina E e substâncias fenólicas. Estudos indicam que o consumo do tomate pode retardar o envelhecimento e favorecer o funcionamento do sistema imunológico em humanos, embora não seja possível afirmar uma relação direta entre a prevenção ou cura de qualquer carcinoma com o consumo de produtos à base licopeno. Na década de 1990, a Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuária (EMBRAPA) criou o projeto TOMATEC, o tomate ecologicamente cultivado. A produção é baseada em um manejo diferenciado, que objetiva a otimização do uso do solo, menor consumo de pesticidas, herbicidas e incentivo à produção familiar dos agricultores. O estudo objetiva observar a influencia dos diferentes manejos: tradicional e TOMATEC na produção de (15E)-licopeno nos frutos do tomate, em diferentes cultivares do Brasil. Assim, foi utilizada a técnica de cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência acoplada a detector por arranjo de diodos (CLAE-DAD), em fase estacionária polimérica composta de 30 carbonos (C30). Esta fase estacionária é capaz de separar carotenoides, incluvise, isômeros geométricos do licopeno. As amostras foram coletadas, tratadas, extraídas e analisadas sob as mesmas condições para avaliação das concentrações de (15E)-licopeno nos frutos. Ensaios realizados foram capazes de demonstrar, de maneira objetiva, que a metodologia proposta conduziu a resultados confiáveis à qualidade desejada, de acordo com o guia de validação proposto pelo Instituto Nacional de Metrologia, Normalização e Qualidade Industrial (INMETRO). Foram utilizadas ferramentas estatísticas para comparar os teores de (15E)-licopeno, em diferentes Estados do Brasil, sob diferentes manejos. Os resultados indicam os maiores teores da substância em cultivares convencionais e mostram que o ensacamento do fruto é um fator decisivo para a biossíntese do (15E)-licopeno

胡萝卜素β-和ε-环化酶及辣椒红/辣椒玉红合酶基因的分离及特性研究

利用3’和5' RACE、Uneven PCR等技术成功地从胡萝卜肉质根中分离了茄红素β-环化酶、茄红素ε．环化酶和辣椒红／辣椒玉红素合酶cDNA以及茄红素β一环化酶基因5’端上游的部分序列，并研究了它们在胡萝卜肉质根中的表达模式，对胡萝卜中类胡萝卜素代谢和积累的分子机制进行了探讨。 胡萝卜茄红素β--环化酶cDNA（DCLYC1）长2089bp，包含一个1515bp的开放阅读框架，所编码蛋白长505个氨基酸，其一级结构与番茄、烟草和辣椒等植物的茄红素β--环化酶高度同源。与农杆菌和夏噬孢欧文氏菌等微生物的茄红素环化酶相似性较差，但相互间有3个短小的同源区，且蛋白疏水模式也十分相似。茄红素β--环化酶在胡萝卜肉质根中的表达受品种和组织特异性的调控。在紫色的富含茄红素的“齐头红”胡萝卜肉质根中该基因的表达受到了强烈的抑制，相反，在橙色的富含β--和α--胡萝卜素的“CA201”胡萝卜肉质根中表达十分活跃。茄红素β--环化酶和八氢番茄红素合酶基因的表达在肉质根的韧皮部和木质部之间存在差异，在韧皮部中的表达强于木质部。类胡萝卜素生物合成基因的差异表达是造成不同胡萝卜品种和组织中积累的类胡萝卜素的种类和含量不同的原因。 对紫色品种和橙色品种的茄红素β--环化酶基因组DNA的PCR分析表明两者的基因组中均存在茄红素β一环化酶基因。为了探明茄红素β--环化酶基因在不同胡萝卜品种中差异表达的原因，利用Uneven pCR从胡萝卜基因组DNA中分离克隆了茄红素β--环化酶基因5’端上游部分序列。该DNA片段长1.7kb，3’端286bp区域与DCLYC1的5’端序列交叉重叠，在GenBank中没有找到相似的序列。在1294bp-1336bp位置串连着3个TATA盒，结构十分特殊，在TATA盒上游大约700bβ位置有2个CAAT盒。瞬间表达实验证明它具有启动子活性，可以指导GUS基因在胡萝卜肉质根、叶片和茎等组织中表达。然而，其表达模式却与茄红素B．环化酶基因的Northern杂交结果不同，主要在韧皮部和木质部交界的分生组织中表达，同时在紫色胡萝卜肉质根中其表达并没有受到抑制。这一片段可能还不是完整的胡萝卜茄红素β--环化酶基因启动子，缺少了调控基因进行品种和组织特异性表达的部分序列元件。因此，分离更长的胡萝卜茄红素环化酶基因5’端上游序列，将有助于揭示茄红素β一环化酶基因呈品种和组织特异性表达的分子机制。 所分离的胡萝卜辣椒红／辣椒玉红素合酶cDNA (DCCCS)长1744bp，包含一个长1476bp的开放阅读框架，所编码蛋白长492个氨基酸。与辣椒和柑桔CCS的氨基酸序列同源性分别为为76.6%和75.3%，与DCLYC1等其它植物茄红素β--环化酶的氨基酸序列同源性为63.9-67.4%。DCCCS的表达模式在两个不同颜色的品种之间十分相似，在肉质根韧皮部中强烈表达，而在木质部中表达明显受到了抑制。由于CCS与LYC-B高度同源，有人认为CCS可能具有茄红素环化酶活性，然而本研究结果表明，DCCCS虽然在紫色的齐头红胡萝卜肉质根韧皮部中强烈表达，却没有影响细胞中积累大量的茄红素，因此DCCCS即使具有茄红素环化酶作用，其活性也是极低的。 分离到的胡萝卜茄红素ε--环化酶cDNA片段(DCL YC-E)长1264bp，包含了完整的3’端，5’端尚不完整。按照引物LYCP1上的阅读框架进行翻译得到长385个氨基酸的肽链与莴苣、番茄和拟南芥LYC-E肽链相应区域的氨基酸序列高度同源，达80.5%以上，其中与莴苣茄红素ε--环化酶最为接近。与拟南芥茄红素ε--环化酶第448位基团和莴苣茄红素ε--环化酶第457位基团对应的氨基酸基团为H。这一基团是一个分子开关，决定茄红素ε--环化酶是催化茄红素的一端还是两端形成ε--环，因此，胡萝卜茄红素ε--环化酶可能与莴苣茄红素ε--环化酶具有相同的功能，即可以催化对称的线性茄红素的两端均形成ε--环，生成双ε--环胡萝卜素。DCLYC-E在胡萝卜肉质根中表达模式与DCLYCI不同，在紫色品种齐头红肉质根韧皮部中表达十分强烈，没有受到抑制，而且明显强于木质部;在橙色品种CA201中DCLYCE的表达模式与DCLYCI相似，韧皮部中表达强，而木质部中相对弱得多。DCL YC-E的表达模式在所测试品种间没有差异。在富含茄红素的齐头红胡萝卜肉质根中DCL YC-E强烈表达，可见它并没有将茄红素大量转化为双ε--环胡萝卜素，因此该酶的功能和活性有待进一步研究。