Assessment of crop insect damage using unmanned aerial systems: A machine learning approach

Agricultural pests are responsible for millions of dollars in crop losses and management costs every year. In order to implement optimal site-specific treatments and reduce control costs, new methods to accurately monitor and assess pest damage need to be investigated. In this paper we explore the combination of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV), remote sensing and machine learning techniques as a promising technology to address this challenge. The deployment of UAVs as a sensor platform is a rapidly growing field of study for biosecurity and precision agriculture applications. In this experiment, a data collection campaign is performed over a sorghum crop severely damaged by white grubs (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae). The larvae of these scarab beetles feed on the roots of plants, which in turn impairs root exploration of the soil profile. In the field, crop health status could be classified according to three levels: bare soil where plants were decimated, transition zones of reduced plant density and healthy canopy areas. In this study, we describe the UAV platform deployed to collect high-resolution RGB imagery as well as the image processing pipeline implemented to create an orthoimage. An unsupervised machine learning approach is formulated in order to create a meaningful partition of the image into each of the crop levels. The aim of the approach is to simplify the image analysis step by minimizing user input requirements and avoiding the manual data labeling necessary in supervised learning approaches. The implemented algorithm is based on the K-means clustering algorithm. In order to control high-frequency components present in the feature space, a neighbourhood-oriented parameter is introduced by applying Gaussian convolution kernels prior to K-means. The outcome of this approach is a soft K-means algorithm similar to the EM algorithm for Gaussian mixture models. The results show the algorithm delivers decision boundaries that consistently classify the field into three clusters, one for each crop health level. The methodology presented in this paper represents a venue for further research towards automated crop damage assessments and biosecurity surveillance.

A generic individual-based spatially explicit model as a novel tool for investigating insect-plant interactions: A case study of the behavioural ecology of frugivorous Tephritidae

Computational modelling of mechanisms underlying processes in the real world can be of great value in understanding complex biological behaviours. Uptake in general biology and ecology has been rapid. However, it often requires specific data sets that are overly costly in time and resources to collect. The aim of the current study was to test whether a generic behavioural ecology model constructed using published data could give realistic outputs for individual species. An individual-based model was developed using the Pattern-Oriented Modelling (POM) strategy and protocol, based on behavioural rules associated with insect movement choices. Frugivorous Tephritidae (fruit flies) were chosen because of economic significance in global agriculture and the multiple published data sets available for a range of species. The Queensland fruit fly (Qfly), Bactrocera tryoni, was identified as a suitable individual species for testing. Plant canopies with modified architecture were used to run predictive simulations. A field study was then conducted to validate our model predictions on how plant architecture affects fruit flies’ behaviours. Characteristics of plant architecture such as different shapes, e.g., closed-canopy and vase-shaped, affected fly movement patterns and time spent on host fruit. The number of visits to host fruit also differed between the edge and centre in closed-canopy plants. Compared to plant architecture, host fruit has less contribution to effects on flies’ movement patterns. The results from this model, combined with our field study and published empirical data suggest that placing fly traps in the upper canopy at the edge should work best. Such a modelling approach allows rapid testing of ideas about organismal interactions with environmental substrates in silico rather than in vivo, to generate new perspectives. Using published data provides a saving in time and resources. Adjustments for specific questions can be achieved by refinement of parameters based on targeted experiments.

Assessment of insect occurrence in boreal forests based on satellite imagery and field measurements.

The presence/absence data of twenty-seven forest insect taxa (e.g. Retinia resinella, Formica spp., Pissodes spp., several scolytids) and recorded environmental variation were used to investigate the applicability of modelling insect occurrence based on satellite imagery. The sampling was based on 1800 sample plots (25 m by 25 m) placed along the sides of 30 equilateral triangles (side 1 km) in a fragmented forest area (approximately 100 km2) in Evo, S Finland. The triangles were overlaid on land use maps interpreted from satellite images (Landsat TM 30 m multispectral scanner imagery 1991) and digitized geological maps. Insect occurrence was explained using either environmental variables measured in the field or those interpreted from the land use and geological maps. The fit of logistic regression models varied between species, possibly because some species may be associated with the characteristics of single trees while other species with stand characteristics. The occurrence of certain insect species at least, especially those associated with Scots pine, could be relatively accurately assessed indirectly on the basis of satellite imagery and geological maps. Models based on both remotely sensed and geological data better predicted the distribution of forest insects except in the case of Xylechinus pilosus, Dryocoetes sp. and Trypodendron lineatum, where the differences were relatively small in favour of the models based on field measurements. The number of species was related to habitat compartment size and distance from the habitat edge calculated from the land use maps, but logistic regressions suggested that other environmental variables in general masked the effect of these variables in species occurrence at the present scale.

Characterization of the genome of Oryctes baculovirus, a viral biocide of the insect pest Oryctes rhinoceros

Oryctes baculovirus is a viral biocide exploited for the control of the insect pest Oryctes rhinoceros. We have recently established a physical map of the genome of the Indian isolate of Oryctes baculovirus (OBV-KI). Here we examine the genomic relatedness between OBV-KI and OBV-PV505, the type isolate (originally from the Philippines), by DNA reassociation kinetics and by the use of restriction endonucleases. On the basis of differences in restriction-enzyme profiles between the two genomes, and previously reported differences in protein profiles and antigenic makeup, we propose the taxonomic status of a variant of Oryctes baculovirus for the Indian isolate.

Detection of a CpA methylase in an insect system: characterization and substrate specificity

A cytosine-specific DNA methyltransferase (EC 2.1.1.37) has been purified to near homogeneity from a mealybug (Planococcus lilacinus). The enzyme can methylate cytosine residues in CpG sequences as well as CpA sequences. The apparent molecular weight of the enzyme was estimated as 135,000 daltons by FPLC. The enzyme exhibits a processive mode of action and a salt dependance similar to mammalian methylases. Mealybug methylase exhibits a preference for denatured DNA substrates.

Piezoelectrically actuated insect scale flapping wing

An energy method is used in order to derive the non-linear equations of motion of a smart flapping wing. Flapping wing is actuated from the root by a PZT unimorph in the piezofan configuration. Dynamic characteristics of the wing, having the same size as dragonfly Aeshna Multicolor, are analyzed using numerical simulations. It is shown that flapping angle variations of the smart flapping wing are similar to the actual dragonfly wing for a specific feasible voltage. An unsteady aerodynamic model based on modified strip theory is used to obtain the aerodynamic forces. It is found that the smart wing generates sufficient lift to support its own weight and carry a small payload. It is therefore a potential candidate for flapping wing of micro air vehicles.

Changing resonator geometry to boost sound power decouples size and song frequency in a small insect

Despite their small size, some insects, such as crickets, can produce high amplitude mating songs by rubbing their wings together. By exploiting structural resonance for sound radiation, crickets broadcast species-specific songs at a sharply tuned frequency. Such songs enhance the range of signal transmission, contain information about the signaler's quality, and allow mate choice. The production of pure tones requires elaborate structural mechanisms that control and sustain resonance at the species-specific frequency. Tree crickets differ sharply from this scheme. Although they use a resonant system to produce sound, tree crickets can produce high amplitude songs at different frequencies, varying by as much as an octave. Based on an investigation of the driving mechanism and the resonant system, using laser Doppler vibrometry and finite element modeling, we show that it is the distinctive geometry of the crickets' forewings (the resonant system) that is responsible for their capacity to vary frequency. The long, enlarged wings enable the production of high amplitude songs; however, as a mechanical consequence of the high aspect ratio, the resonant structures have multiple resonant modes that are similar in frequency. The drive produced by the singing apparatus cannot, therefore, be locked to a single frequency, and different resonant modes can easily be engaged, allowing individual males to vary the carrier frequency of their songs. Such flexibility in sound production, decoupling body size and song frequency, has important implications for conventional views of mate choice, and offers inspiration for the design of miniature, multifrequency, resonant acoustic radiators.

Biomechanics of Substrate Boring by Fig Wasps: Role of Zinc in Insect Cuticle

There are many biomechanical challenges that a female insect must meet to successfully oviposit and ensure her evolutionary success. These begin with selection of a suitable substrate through which the ovipositor must penetrate without itself buckling or fracturing. The second phase corresponds to steering and manipulating the ovipositor to deliver eggs at desired locations. Finally, the insect must retract her ovipositor fast to avoid possible predation and repeat this process multiple times during her lifetime. From a materials perspective, insect oviposition is a fascinating problem and poses many questions. Specifically, are there diverse mechanisms that insects use to drill through hard substrates without itself buckling or fracturing? What are the structure-property relationships in the ovipositor material? These are some of the questions we address with a model system consisting of a parasitoid fig wasp - fig substrate system. To characterize the structure of ovipositors, we use scanning electron microscopy with a detector to quantify the presence of transition elements. Our results show that parasitoid ovipositors have teeth like structures on their tips and contain high amounts of zinc as compared to remote regions. Sensillae are present along the ovipositor to aid detection of chemical species and mechanical deformations. To quantify the material properties of parasitoid ovipositors, we use an atomic force microscope and show that tip regions have higher modulus as compared to remote regions. Finally, we use videography to show that ovipositors buckle during oviposition and estimate the forces needed to cause substrate boring based on Euler buckling analysis. Such methods may be useful for the design of functionally graded surgical tools.

Isolation and characterization of biofumigant from leaves of Lantana camara for control of stored grain insect pests

Due to environmental concerns, health hazards to man and the evolution of resistance in insect pests, there have been constant efforts to discover newer insecticides both from natural sources and by chemical synthesis. Natural sources for novel molecules hold promise in view of their eco-friendly nature, selectivity and mammalian safety. We have isolated one natural bioactive molecule from the leaves of Lantana camara named Coumaran, based on various physical-chemical and spectroscopic techniques (IR, H-1 NMR, C-13 NMR and MS). Coumaran is highly toxic and very low concentration is needed for control of stored product insects. This molecule has potent grain protectant potential and caused significant reduction in F1 progeny of all the three species in the treated grain and the progeny was completely suppressed at 30 mu g/l. The differences in germination between the control and treated grains were not significant. The lack of any adverse effect of Coumaran on the seed germination is highly desirable for a grain protectant, becoming a potential source of biofumigant for economical and environmentally friendly pest control strategies against stored grain pests during storage of grains or pulses. (C) 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Social insect colony as a biological regulatory system: modelling information flow in dominance networks

Social insects provide an excellent platform to investigate flow of information in regulatory systems since their successful social organization is essentially achieved by effective information transfer through complex connectivity patterns among the colony members. Network representation of such behavioural interactions offers a powerful tool for structural as well as dynamical analysis of the underlying regulatory systems. In this paper, we focus on the dominance interaction networks in the tropical social wasp Ropalidia marginata-a species where behavioural observations indicate that such interactions are principally responsible for the transfer of information between individuals about their colony needs, resulting in a regulation of their own activities. Our research reveals that the dominance networks of R. marginata are structurally similar to a class of naturally evolved information processing networks, a fact confirmed also by the predominance of a specific substructure-the `feed-forward loop'-a key functional component in many other information transfer networks. The dynamical analysis through Boolean modelling confirms that the networks are sufficiently stable under small fluctuations and yet capable of more efficient information transfer compared to their randomized counterparts. Our results suggest the involvement of a common structural design principle in different biological regulatory systems and a possible similarity with respect to the effect of selection on the organization levels of such systems. The findings are also consistent with the hypothesis that dominance behaviour has been shaped by natural selection to co-opt the information transfer process in such social insect species, in addition to its primal function of mediation of reproductive competition in the colony.

Nanomaterial-based ionic polymermetal composite insect scale flapping wing actuators

Small size actuators (8 mm x 1 mm), IPMNC (RuO2/Nafion) and IPMNC (LbL/CNC) are studied for flapping at the frequency of insects and compared to Platinum IPMC-Pt. Flapping wing actuators based on IPMNC (RuO2/Nafion) are modeled with the size of three dragonfly species. To achieve maximum actuation performance with Sympetrum Frequens scale actuator with optimized Young's modulus, the effect of variation of thickness of electrode and Nafion region of Sympetrum Frequens scale actuator is studied. A trade-off in the electrode thickness and Young's modulus for dragonfly size IPMNC-RuO2/Nafion actuator is essential to achieve the desirable flapping performance.